Architectural and structural elements of buildings. What is the name of a collection of residential buildings, also residential premises, regardless of the form of ownership? General information about building structural systems
Any building is an interconnected system of architectural and structural elements, each of which performs a specific function. These elements can also be called the building parts.
All structural elements can be divided into load-bearing and enclosing. Load-bearing elements include those parts of the building that carry the load from the elements lying above them, as well as the payload (the weight of people, furniture, equipment). Enclosing (self-supporting) structures are those that bear the load only from their own weight. This curtain walls(including internal partitions), as well as the covering of the building (roof). External brick walls can be non-load-bearing if the structural system of the building is not wall, but framed: in this case, the floors are supported by pillars, and the brickwork, supported on the floor of its floor, performs only an enclosing function. The load-bearing external elements of the building also play the role of fencing, protecting inner space buildings from impacts external environment. Internal enclosing elements (partitions) perform the function of dividing space. External enclosing structures, in addition, take on the load from snow, wind and other atmospheric phenomena, and therefore must be stronger than similar internal structures.
The set of load-bearing structural elements of a building is called load-bearing frame. These elements provide strength, rigidity and stability of the building. The load-bearing frame includes both vertical (walls, pillars, columns) and horizontal (floors) elements. Stationary stairs and the roof are also load-bearing structures.
The supporting frame must be supported by foundation– a structural element that receives loads from the load-bearing frame (which, in turn, receives loads from non-load-bearing parts of the building and from environmental influences, as well as the payload) and transfers them to the soil foundation (soil layers that receive the load from the building or structure) . The lower plane of the foundation, with which it rests on the soil base, is called the base. The upper plane of the foundation, on which the walls or pillars rest, is called the edge. The foundation is the basis of the building, the most important structural part.
Foundations can be strip, columnar, slab (solid) and pile. You can make a strip or columnar foundation(Fig. 14).
Figure 14. Types of brick foundation: a) strip; b) columnar
Strip foundation is a solid wall (ribbon). It can be made of reinforced concrete (prefabricated or monolithic), rubble concrete or brick. Strip foundations are usually used in buildings with a wall load-bearing system. In cross-section (cross-section), the strip foundation usually has the shape of a rectangle, but when high loads on the base it is made in steps.
Columnar foundation– these are pillars installed in key places (corners of the building, intersections load-bearing walls) and along the walls with a certain maximum interval and fastened at the top with beams. Such foundations are used in frame or wall-type buildings with low weight structures (for example, under wooden walls). The pillars can be made of wood, brick, rubble concrete or reinforced concrete (prefabricated or monolithic).
Pile and slab foundations used in buildings with heavy loads on the foundation or in difficult soil conditions. These two types of foundations can be combined (when the building rests on a solid slab, installed on piles driven or poured into the ground, located over the entire area of the base).
Base – top part foundation located above ground level. Base, like underground structures, requires increased resistance to moisture, but it can be made of a material other than the underground part of the foundation. For the construction of brick foundations and plinths, only solid ceramic brick high brands. If the building uses a columnar foundation, the base can be made in the form of a fence - a wall or bricks or other material located between the foundation pillars protruding above the ground, the soil and the strapping beams.
The base can be made recessed relative to the wall or, on the contrary, protruding beyond its plane. The plinth is usually not installed flush with the wall, since in this case it is more difficult to waterproof between the wall and the plinth. If the base protrudes beyond the plane of the wall, the protruding part of its edge is called a cordon.
Around the plinth at the level of the ground base, a blind area is made - an inclined element to drain water from the plinth and foundation.
Walls– a vertical load-bearing element of a building, having an elongated (extended) shape in plan, protecting the premises in the building from the external environment and from each other. Walls can be external and internal, load-bearing and self-supporting. Internal self-supporting walls are called partitions; they divide the building space within a floor into rooms. There are also non-load-bearing (curtain) walls made from prefabricated (factory-made) panels hung on the floors. The walls are made of stone, brick, reinforced concrete, concrete blocks and wood. For partitions, brick, wood, reinforced concrete or plasterboard are used.
The side of the wall facing the street, together with the totality of structural and decorative elements called the facade of the building. There are main facades (facing the street, square, etc.), side and courtyard facades.
Pillars, columns, racks, pylons– vertical load-bearing elements of the frame system, which are free-standing supports.
Angles walls - the place where the ends of two walls meet. Most often this connection is at right angles; other angles are found much less frequently in projects.
Partition- part of the wall located between two openings. According to the method of laying, a brick wall resembles a pillar. The pier adjacent to the corner of the wall is called corner, the remaining piers are called ordinary.
Cornice- a projection at the top of the wall, designed to protect the walls from water flowing from the roof. This element can also play a decorative role. In brickwork, the cornice is formed by laying several overlapping rows. The cornice can also be installed at the level of interfloor ceilings - for additional protection of the “floor - walls” assembly and for the architectural and artistic design of the facade (with the designation of the number of storeys). An interfloor stepped cornice is also called an interfloor profiled rod. Instead of a cornice, a belt can be installed between floors - a horizontal protruding element of a simple rectangular profile. When installing interfloor cornices, the upper cornice located under the roof is called the main, or crowning, cornice. Small cornices called sandriks may be located above door or window openings. The cornice located under the window opening is called a window sill. The distance over which the cornice protrudes beyond the plane of the wall, as well as the protruding part itself, is called the overhang of the cornice.
Opening- a hole in a wall or ceiling to accommodate a door, window, hatch or ladder. The top and side edges of a door or window opening are called slopes. A wall without openings is called a blank wall.
Openings in a brick wall are necessarily completed with lintels - metal or reinforced concrete (with dimensions multiple to the size of the brick) beams that support the masonry above the opening. The lintel can also be arched, but it can also be made from brickwork. A straight (not arched) brick lintel can only be obtained with preliminary reinforcement and using formwork.
Windows and doors (filling window and doorways) refer to the enclosing elements of the building. Windows serve to illuminate and ventilate rooms, doors serve to connect rooms with each other and with the outside environment.
Overlap- a horizontal load-bearing structure supported by walls or pillars (columns) and supporting the weight of partitions, equipment, people and furniture. The enclosing role of floors is reduced to dividing a building into floors, as well as protecting it from the external environment from below and above. The ceiling that separates two ordinary floors is called interfloor, or interfloor. The ceiling that separates the first floor of a building from the basement or soil foundation is called the basement, or above the basement. The attic is the floor that separates the upper floor from the attic. If the building does not have an attic, the upper floor serves as a roof structure. The floor can be a solid slab (or a set of slabs) or a beam system. There are also overlaps unusual shape: arched, vaulted, etc. In individual construction, such floors are rare in our time.
On top load-bearing structures ceilings on the operated floors are arranged with a floor covering made of the selected material (boards, ceramic tiles, linoleum, laminate, parquet, etc.), below - ceiling covering.
Balconies, loggias, and bay windows are also architectural and structural elements of the building. The balcony is a wall protruding beyond the plane open area(without walls, but with fencing) at the level of one of the floors. A bay window, like a balcony, protrudes beyond the surface of the wall, but has a permanent (wall) fence that can be arranged at the level of several floors, uniting them. The loggia does not protrude beyond the plane of the outer wall and is a platform open from the facade.
The brickwork in the building will necessarily be combined with other materials: wood, reinforced concrete, metal. Since these materials make up different structural elements of buildings and have different technical characteristics, it is often necessary to high quality warmth– and waterproofing.
Roof– a set of load-bearing elements on which the covering (roof) rests, as well as the covering itself. The roof is the upper waterproofing part of the roof. The load-bearing elements of the roof are trusses, rafters, beams, arches (depending on the type of structure). The roof includes the base under the roof (sheathing, insulation materials) And roofing(tiles, slate, roofing metal etc.).
The roof performs both load-bearing and enclosing functions. The design must provide for the removal of precipitation from the building. Water drainage can be external or internal. In individual construction, an external drainage system is most often used, consisting of gutters, funnels and pipes through which water enters the storm drainage without causing damage to the walls and foundation. Internal drainage is more complicated to install; it is usually used in buildings with flat roof and a large building area.
Roofs can be flat (with a slope of up to 2.5%) and pitched. Pitched roofs vary in the number and shape of slopes (from single-pitched to complex multi-pitched and domed).
Coating- an enclosing structural element located on top of the load-bearing elements of the roof and performing the function of protection from precipitation and other environmental influences.
All buildings, despite their differences in technical design, consist of separate structural parts. Walls are one of them. I propose to consider the architectural and structural elements of the walls, get acquainted with their name and purpose.
When designing buildings, they also take into account aesthetic considerations, giving the facade a look with attractive proportions of the external elements of the building walls.
To avoid solidity (uniformity), the surfaces are conventionally divided vertically (pilasters, for example, braces) and horizontally (plinths, cornices).
Basic wall elements
Base
The lower part of the building (walls), located on the foundation, slightly protruding beyond the plane of the facade, is called the plinth. It connects the foundation to the walls.
The top of the plinth (cordon) is arranged horizontally, so a building with a high plinth (50-60cm) is perceived as architecturally complete, rising as if on a pedestal. In addition to architectural and constructive expressiveness, the plinth protects the building from the penetration of precipitation.
Waterproofing is installed between the foundation and the plinth to prevent moisture from entering the masonry. IN in some cases, when the material of the walls and base is different, then waterproofing layer They are also provided on top of the base.
For non-seismic areas - this is roll waterproofing (roofing felt, modern rolled materials). For a seismic zone - this is waterproofing from cement mortar M – 100, 150, 30mm thick.
The plinth is an important architectural and structural element, forming the foundation of the structure; it gives it not only visual, but also structural stability. It must be finished with durable, waterproof and frost-resistant materials.
It can be:
- Plaster with granite additives, marble chips, just plaster;
- Brick cladding with jointing;
- Natural or artificial stone;
- Cladding with natural, artificial tiles and other options.
1-base; 2-window opening; 3 - doorway; 4-jumpers; 5- ordinary pier; 6 — corner pier; 7- crowning cornice; 8 same, intermediate; 9- belt; 10 - sandrik; 11-parapet; 12 – pediment; 13- niche; 14 – pilaster; 15- buttress; 16-cut; 17 – bracing The architectural and structural elements of the walls give the building proportionality in shape and size, and improve the visual perception of the structure as a whole.
Openings
Openings are large openings left during the construction of walls for windows, door blocks, and stoves. The distance between the openings is called piers.
Types of walls:
- ordinary - between adjacent openings;
- corner - between the corner of the building and the nearby opening.
The upper and side areas surrounding the opening are called slopes (lintel). In brick external walls, the masonry in the openings is arranged with projections of a quarter of a brick (from the street side).
Jumpers
The structure that covers door, window, and arched openings is called a lintel. The lintels support the walls and ceilings located above. They must rest on the wall masonry.
According to the load-bearing capacity, lintels are divided into:
- Load-bearing elements - must bear the weight load wall material above it, the ceiling plus its own weight;
- Non-bearing - only their own weight and the load from the wall material above them.
More common in construction are prefabricated reinforced concrete products, the dimensions of which are taken depending on the load, the size of the space to be covered, and the thickness of the walls on which it will rest. Monolithic lintels are not practical in terms of cost and labor intensity, but are possible.
The embedment depth is:
- for load-bearing – 250mm;
- for non-load-bearing elements - at least 125mm;
- for partitions – 200mm.
They are mounted on a layer of mortar no more than 15 mm thick. The geometric shape of the lintel can be bar, slab, façade or beam. If they overlap a non-standard size in width, then it is made according to an individually placed order.
Architectural and structural elements of walls - in particular, lintels can be arranged and brick type provided that the width of the space to be covered is no more than 2 meters, with a small load from the wall material laid above, in non-seismic areas, in the absence of vibration. They are used only in non-load-bearing walls.
Brick lintels, depending on the masonry technique, are:
- Ordinary lintels - the masonry is of the usual type, like a continuous belt, the mortar is of a higher grade, and special quality control is carried out. The height of the masonry layer is calculated by the project, and should not be less than four rows.
When installing a lintel, formwork is installed from below, on which a layer of cement mortar 30 mm thick is laid. Reinforcement is recessed into this layer, the cross-section and number of rods of which is determined by the design. - Arched lintels are laid out on arranged formwork, made in the form of an arc of a given curvature. The brick is laid on edge. In this case, the seams between adjacent bricks are wedge-shaped. The number of rows of masonry must be kept odd.
They are now rarely used, mostly to give the building architectural and constructive expressiveness. They are mainly present in old buildings.
Cornices
Cornices are horizontal protruding parts of the wall. The main or crowning one is the upper cornice. It is considered as one of the main elements of the external walls, completing the architectural and structural ensemble of the building. Functionally, it serves to remove precipitation from the roof.
Architectural and structural elements of walls - cornices - are designed taking into account the size of the building, number of floors, accessory and harmony with the main buildings around.
As a rule, reinforced concrete prefabricated elements are installed, which are secured with anchors. If a small overhang of the cornice is provided, then it is made of brick by overlapping masonry (solid brick).
Cornices over openings (windows, doors) are called sandriks. The plane of the facades can be divided by additional, intermediate cornices of simple shape - belts.
Expansion joints in the walls of a building
If the building is long, its parts may not react equally to external influence. These are temperature changes, uneven settlement, seismic vibrations, which can lead to the appearance of cracks that reduce the load-bearing capacity of the structure.
Expansion joints divide the building into separate parts from the foundation to the roof. Their width is calculated based on the winter temperature, brand of mortar, and wall material. For example, the lower the temperature in winter, the more often seams are made.
Settlement seams are performed where uneven settlement is expected. At the border of soils of different structure, at the junction of buildings with different number of storeys, and other similar options. Here the cutting is made from the bottom of the foundation.
Anti-seismic seams are provided in areas of high seismicity on the principle that each individual compartment must be resistant to tremors.
Ventilation ducts
In internal walls of heated buildings, smoke and ventilation ducts. They are made of brick and can be made of reinforced concrete (ventilation). They are designed for air exchange in rooms with high humidity, with the presence of combustion products, intoxication, and other similar situations.
According to the standards, a separate exhaust duct is provided from each room. The ducts should not communicate with each other, and the exhaust occurs to the street through ventilation heads on the roof.
Loggia, balcony, bay window
These are also architectural and structural elements of walls, providing additional usable area and operational amenities. They serve for household needs and can be attached to the room where they are located.
Balcony is a cantilever reinforced concrete slab anchored in outer wall. It is fenced with railings, the balconies are glazed and finished from the inside to prevent the access of precipitation, or can remain open.
Some owners of second floors that do not have a balcony arrange them themselves, resting them on racks, but this requires special permission and a design that calculates the loads on the supporting parts.
Loggia fenced on the sides with walls and a ceiling on top. The walls rest on a foundation made specifically for the enclosing walls of the loggia. Its load-bearing capacity exceeds that of a balcony. It can also be glazed and make an excellent utility room.
Bay window protrudes beyond the plane of the wall, increasing the internal space from the inside. It is glazed and connected to the interior. This is typical especially in houses of old construction with architectural and structural external forms. In plan form, it can be of different configurations depending on the architectural and structural solution.
Parapet
External walls quite often end with a parapet, which is a continuation of the masonry and rises above the roof. It is intended for fencing the roof; according to the architectural and structural design, it is a rectangular wall with a height of 0.7 - 1 meter. The parapet, in addition, serves as an architectural detail decorating the building.
Other description of wall elements
There are other smaller architectural and structural elements of walls. These include:
Gable- wall covering attic space on gable roof from the end, framed by cornices protruding beyond the plane.
Tong the same pediment, only without a cornice in the lower part at the base.
Niches- a blind recess in the walls. Heating radiators are recessed in them, built-in wardrobes, plumbing, etc. are installed.
Nests– small holes or recesses intended for laying pipelines in sleeves, sealing the ends of structures, etc.
Pilasters– narrow vertically located protrusions of the walls, used to locally strengthen them with a large length or height, with rectangular cross-section in respect of. They can have a foundation, base, capital, which visually resemble columns.
Similar semicircular protrusions are called semi-columns. Pilasters and half-columns give the building aesthetic solemnity and monumentality.
Buttresses- structures that increase the stability of walls, which are protrusions from them with an inclined outer edge. This design provides additional rigidity and strength when absorbing horizontal loads.
Walls are sometimes made with ledges along the height of the masonry, which are called sawn-off shotguns. The ledges on the plane of the facades along its length are called unfastening.
All architectural and structural elements of the walls have their own functional purpose, and also give the building architectural beauty, expressiveness, and individuality.
Ventilation is a set of measures and devices necessary to ensure a given state of the air environment in work areas. Among sanitary and technical measures, ventilation occupies one of the main places in the system of improving working conditions in production. Thanks to ventilation, in many cases it is possible to reduce air dust and pollution with harmful gases and vapors, and normalize microclimatic conditions.
Types of industrial ventilation
By the method of air movement, ventilation is divided into natural and mechanical. DEPENDING ON THE WAY OF AIR EXCHANGE ORGANIZATION, VENTILATION CAN BE LOCAL and general exchange.
By PRINCIPLE ventilation units divided into:
1) exhaust (designed to remove air), which in turn can be local and general; 2) supply air (supply air), which are divided into local (air showers, curtains, oases) and general (scattered or concentrated inflow).
At natural ventilation air exchange occurs due to the temperature difference, and therefore specific gravity air inside and outside the production premises, i.e. they work under the influence of thermal pressure and due to the influence of wind (wind pressure).
The greater the temperature difference in the upper and lower zones of the room and the greater the height of the latter, the greater the effect of these sources.
The difference in air temperature inside the room (where it is higher) and outside causes cold air to enter the room and displace warm air from it. When the wind acts on the windward side of the building, excess pressure is created and fresh air enters the room. A reduced pressure is created on the windward side of the building, resulting in the removal of warm or polluted air from the room. These phenomena are widely used for natural ventilation in workshops with excessive heat generation. However, large air exchanges created by natural ventilation do not always provide the proper hygienic effect.
At large area leaks in external fences industrial buildings When opening gates and doors in the cold season, due to heat and wind pressure, drafts and hypothermia of the work area may occur, and if workplaces are located at a great distance from places where outside air enters in the summer, on the contrary, conditions of insufficient ventilation of the work area may be created. In order to ensure normal natural ventilation, special organization and management of air exchange is required. Natural ventilation of industrial premises can be unorganized and unorganized y.
With unorganized ventilation (ventilation), air enters and leaves through windows, vents, special openings, as well as through leaks in external fences (infiltration). Organized, controlled natural ventilation of industrial premises is called aeration. It is carried out using specially created structural elements industrial buildings- aeration lamps.
If there are no skylights in the ceilings of buildings, natural ventilation can be somewhat improved with the help of special channels or shafts operating under the influence of thermal pressure. For this purpose, the mines are supplied special nozzles- deflectors (Fig. 13). The action of deflectors is based on the fact that the wind, blowing around the nozzle, creates a vacuum in it, due to which the deflector helps suck air through the shaft. For complete
use of wind pressure, mines must be placed at the most high areas roofs. Shafts with deflectors are used to remove contaminated or overheated air from premises of relatively small volume (cowsheds, pigsties, agricultural workshops), as well as for localized removal of hot gases from blacksmith's forges, ovens, etc.
The most rational way of natural air exchange is aeration. It is used for
ventilation of workshops with large excess heat, helping to remove not only excess heat, but also harmful vapors and gases. Aerated buildings are equipped with three rows of openings (1-3), equipped with special transoms. In the walls of buildings, openings are arranged at two levels: at a height of 1 - 1.5 m from the floor (1) and at a height of 4-6 m from the floor (2). In the upper part of the building (usually in the ceiling) glazed light-aeration skylights are equipped, the openings of which are equipped with transoms that can open to the required size (3).
In summer, fresh air enters through the open lower openings (1) and is removed through the upper ones (2). For a diagram of the movement of air flows when there is no wind, see Fig. 14, a, b and in windy weather. In winter, outside air enters through the upper openings in the walls. The height is taken in such a way that the cold outside air, descending to the working area, managed to warm up sufficiently due to mixing with the warm air of the room. This prevents workers from becoming overcooled.
Air exchange is regulated by changing the position of the transom flaps. When calculating aeration, the required area of openings is determined. The calculation is made for summer time with no wind, as the most unfavorable for aeration.
The action of wind usually has a beneficial effect on air exchange, enhancing it. However, in certain wind directions, it is blown into the upper openings of the building's lanterns, as a result of which the flows of outside air are mixed with dust and gases and enter the work area. To eliminate this phenomenon, so-called non-blown lanterns equipped with windproof shields are installed. The air entering the workshop during aeration can be cooled by finely spraying water using nozzles in the plane of the supply openings.
As water evaporates, it lowers the temperature of the surrounding air and slightly increases its humidity. Application of artificial cooling supply air aeration devices are especially important in the southern regions of the country.
Aerated buildings must meet certain architectural and construction requirements. The building must be free around the perimeter to allow outside air to enter through aeration openings. As an exception, an extension is allowed, but not more than 40% of the length of the longitudinal walls.
Best conditions aeration is created in single-span, one-story buildings of sufficient height. It is allowed to place aerated workshops in the upper floors of multi-story buildings.
Great difficulties are encountered with natural ventilation of multi-span buildings, the width of which can reach 100-200 m or more. Under these conditions, supplying fresh, unpolluted air to workstations located in the center of the room is practically impossible. In these cases, aeration is carried out through special lanterns designed by Baturin, in which the inflow and exhaust
are disconnected (at the same time they are not inflated).
It must be borne in mind that aeration of multi-span buildings with inflow through openings in the roof with small excess heat in winter can lead to overcooling of the working area. In such rooms, mechanical ventilation with air heating should be provided. Reliable mechanisms must be equipped to control aeration. The advantage of aeration is the ability
carrying out large air exchanges (up to several million cubic meters per hour). The installation of an aeration system is cheaper mechanical systems ventilation, but much more difficult to control, as it depends on weather conditions: the amount of air exchange can fluctuate significantly depending on wind speed, temperature regime inside the building and other conditions. As a result, in summer, ventilation efficiency can be significantly reduced due to an increase in outside air temperature, especially in calm weather. During aeration it is not always possible to supply fresh air for all workplaces, especially remote ones.
A serious obstacle to the use of aeration is that, along with excess heat, the air in the corresponding work areas also contains harmful vapors, gases and aerosols, the release of which into the outside atmosphere without purification is unacceptable.
When using aeration, cleaning the ventilation air is impossible.
Mechanical ventilation. Unlike natural ventilation, mechanical ventilation allows
pre-treatment of supply air (cleaning, humidification, heating or cooling) and removal of dust, gases and other impurities from the exhaust air before releasing it into the atmosphere. Among other advantages mechanical ventilation should be noted such as uniform operation all year round in the required volumes, regardless of external weather and climatic conditions, as well as the ability to supply air to any point in the working room and remove air from any point; if necessary, the amount of air exchange can be changed within significant limits.
In the fight against industrial hazards, the leading place is occupied by local mechanical exhaust ventilation. It is designed to capture and remove contaminated air directly from the places of formation or release of harmful emissions. Effectiveness of local
exhaust ventilation depends on the rational choice and perfection of the design of the local suction air intake, the degree of cover and the sufficiency of the vacuum created by the installation, and other conditions. The elements of the exhaust unit are a suction (air intake), through which air is removed from the room, air ducts; fan; equipment for air purification from dust and gases; device for air release - exhaust shaft.
The base is the layers of soil that lie under the foundation, as well as to the sides of it.
The base can be natural or artificial.
The thickness of soil lying under a building and receiving loads from it is called natural basis.
If the natural soil mass is not capable of absorbing the loads from the building being constructed and requires work to strengthen it, then such a foundation is called artificial.
Natural bases, their properties.
When constructing buildings on natural foundations:
Soils lying in the thickness of this base must have the necessary compressibility;
Soils must have sufficient bearing capacity;
Soils should not have heaving properties;
Soils must resist the effects of groundwater, which, by dissolving some rocks, removes the smallest particles from their thickness, resulting in porosity of the base, which reduces its bearing capacity;
Soil characteristics:
Rocky– in the form of a continuous or fractured massif of quartzites, limestones, sandstones, such soils are practically not compressible, are not subject to heaving and are excellent foundations.
Coarse clastic– in the form of layers of large stones and pebbles, these soils are slightly compressible, not heaving, waterproof and are good foundations.
Sandy– depending on the size of sand particles, soils are divided into: gravelly, coarse, medium, fine, dusty.
Gravelly, coarse and medium sands quickly compact under load, do not swell when freezing, and are strong and reliable. Fine and dusty sands, when increased and subsequently frozen, become heaving and their bearing capacity decreases. Clayey
- in a dry and low-moisture state they are able to withstand loads on the building, but when moistened, the bearing capacity of these soils decreases; such soils are characterized by long-term settlement under load and swelling when freezing;
Loess-like- in their natural state they have pores in the form of vertical tubes; in a dry state they have sufficient load-bearing capacity, but when moistened their structure is destroyed and under the influence of load they form subsidence; Artificial foundations. or a method of strengthening soils is carried out by a technical and economic comparison of various options for constructing foundations and foundations.
In mass civil construction, as a rule, two types of artificial foundations are used: a foundation created by soil compaction, and a foundation created by its consolidation.
Foundations, their classification.
According to design diagrams:
strip, columnar, solid, pile;
according to the material:
natural stone, rubble concrete, concrete, reinforced concrete, metal, wood;
by nature of work:
rigid (working in compression) and flexible (working in compression and bending);
by depth:
shallow (up to 5 m) and deep (more than 5 m);
Strip foundations.
In the form of a continuous strip under the load-bearing walls of the building.
FL (reinforced concrete), length - 3000 mm, width - 1600 mm
FBS (concrete), block height – 580 mm (280 additional), width – 300, 400, 500, 600 mm
Seam – 20 mm
Columnar foundations.
It consists of a column support in which a glass for the column is placed, a slab part consisting of steps. (1,2,3)
Pile and solid foundations. A solid foundation (in the form of a solid monolithic reinforced concrete slab) is installed under the entire area of the building; such foundations are erected under significant loads or weak and heterogeneous soils. They ensure uniform settlement of the building and protect basement
from water back up.
A pile foundation consists of piles and a grillage.
Classification by nature of work:
Resistant piles (transfer the load from the building to the underlying mass of dense soil);
Hanging piles (compact the soil and transfer the load from the building to it);
by material: metal, wood and reinforced concrete.
according to design solutions:
Driven (manufactured at the enterprise, placed in the ground using mechanisms);
Prismatic (reinforced concrete, solid section, section size: 200x200 and 300x300, length: 4.5-12 m);
Prismatic (with a round plane, section size: 300x300, 250x250, length: 3-8 m);
Tubular (reinforced concrete, diameter: 400-800 mm, length: 4-12 m)
Wooden (from softwood logs);
Pyramidoidal (with an upper section of 300x300, inclined side faces up to 14°, length: 5-12 m); Printed (from monolithic concrete
, laid in pre-drilled wells and connected on top by a grillage);
by depth:
short (3-6 m)
long (more than 6 m) Low figured columns in the form of columns (sometimes with carved decor
(French balustrade from Italian balaustrata) - a fence (usually low) of a staircase, balcony, terrace, etc., consisting of a number of figured posts (balusters) connected at the top by railings or a horizontal beam; railings made of figured posts.
(also pilaster, Italian pilastro from Latin pila “column”, “pillar”) - a vertical projection of a wall, usually having a base and a capital, and thereby conventionally representing a column. The pilaster often repeats the parts and proportions of the order column, however, unlike it, it is usually devoid of entasis (thickening of the trunk).
(from Latin caput - head) - the crowning part of a column or pilaster. The top of the capital extends beyond the column, providing a transition to the abacus, which is usually square in shape. The capitals of the three classical orders have a characteristic, easily recognizable shape. The Doric capital is a simple round cushion-echin; at the Ionic capital, two scroll-volutes are sculpted on the echinus; The Corinthian capital is a tall bell-shaped piece, decorated with scrolls of acanthus leaves.
(from Latin abacus - “board”) - a slab that makes up the upper part of the capital of a column, half-column, pilaster and has a simple quadrangular shape in the Doric, Ancient Ionic and Tuscan orders, and in the New Ionic and Corinthian orders, as well as in the Roman composite - the shape a quadrangle with truncated corners and concave sides, each of which has a sculptural ornament in the middle, usually in the form of a stylized flower.
(also called atlas) - in the European architectural tradition, a sculpture in the form of a man, performing a decorative or functional role in supporting the ceiling of a building, balcony, cornice, etc. It can be located in the place of a column or pilaster. In Roman architecture, the term Telamon is used to refer to such a sculpture.
Rustika(also rustic, rustic; from Latin rusticus - literally “village”, derived from Latin rus - village; “simple”, “rough”, “uncouth”) - in architecture, cladding external walls buildings or some spaces on them with quadrangular, regularly folded stones, the front side of which is left unhewn or hewn very roughly, and only along the edges is surrounded by a small smooth strip. In this case, the term rust means either such a stone itself, or a dividing strip between stones.
A statue of a clothed woman, introduced into use by ancient Greek architecture to support an entablature and, therefore, replacing a column or pilaster.
(French entablement from table - table, board) - beam floor bay or wall completion consisting of an architrave, frieze and cornice. An entablature without a frieze is called incomplete, and without an architrave - lightweight.
Frieze(French frise) - decorative composition in the form horizontal stripe or a ribbon crowning or framing one or another part of an architectural structure.
Cornice(from Greek κορωνίς) - a protruding element of the internal and exterior finishing buildings, premises. In architecture, a cornice separates the roof plane from vertical plane walls, or divides the wall plane along selected horizontal lines.
In order architecture, the cornice is the crowning part of the entablature, located above the frieze and architrave. The order cornice comes forward sharply and hangs over the other parts of the entablature, protecting them from precipitation. The basis of the cornice is the remote slab. The lower part of the slab is equipped with rectangular projections - mutuls.
Architrave or epistelion (Italian architrave, from Greek ἀρχι, “arches”, over-, main and Latin trabs beam) - architectural term, which has several meanings.
Firstly, an architrave or architrave covering generally refers to any straight crossbar that spans the gap above columns, pillars, or window and door openings.
Secondly, this is the lower part of the entablature, directly resting on the capitals of the column; in the Tuscan and Doric orders the architrave is made simple and smooth, and in the Ionic and Corinthian orders it is horizontally divided into three parts.
Facade(French façade - front, front side of the building) - outer, front side of the building.
The shapes, proportions, and decor of the facade are determined by the purpose of the architectural structure, its design features, a stylistic solution to its architectural image.
There are main, side, rear facades, as well as street and courtyard facades.
(French bas-relief - low relief) - a type of sculptural convex relief in which the image protrudes above the background plane by no more than half the volume. If more, the relief is called high relief (high relief).
(French haut-relief - high relief) - a type of sculptural convex relief in which the image protrudes above the background plane by more than half the volume. Some elements may be completely separated from the plane. A common type of decoration of architectural structures; allows you to display multi-figure scenes and landscapes.
(French fronton, from Latin frons, frontis - forehead, front part of the wall) - the completion (usually triangular, less often semi-circular) of the facade of a building, portico, colonnade, limited by two roof slopes on the sides and a cornice at the base.
(from Greek πυλών - gate, entrance): Pillars large section, serving as a support for flat or vaulted ceilings in some types of structures (for example, in underground metro stations) or supporting the main (bearing) cables in suspension bridges. Massive low pillars standing on the sides of the entrance, entrance to the territory of palaces, parks and other things (the most common in the architecture of classicism).
(lat. porticus) - a covered gallery, the ceiling of which rests on columns that support it either directly, or with the help of an architrave lying on them, or by means of arches thrown between them. Portico, open on one side, with opposite side limited by a wall - either blank, or having doors and windows. In other words, a portico is a semi-open room whose roof is supported by columns.
(French colonnade) - in architecture, a row or rows of columns united by a horizontal ceiling.
Colonnades can be used in the form of porticoes and galleries adjacent to the building, which unite its separate volumes and visually connect it with the surrounding space of the courtyard or square (for example, the colonnade of the Kazan Cathedral of St. Petersburg, 1801-11, architect A. N. Voronikhin), and also with the surrounding nature.
— Architectural detail in the form of a small cornice or cornice with a pediment of various shapes (triangular, oval and complex compositions) above a window, doorway or niche.
Decoration on the wall of a building in the form of a rectangular frame.
Cartouche(French cartouche, from Italian cartoccio - bundle, little bag) - in architecture and decorative arts - “a motif in the form of a half-unfolded, often with torn or notched edges of a roll of paper, scroll”, on which a coat of arms, emblem or inscription can be placed. Cartouches can also be found at a later time in the architecture of eclecticism, modernism, and neoclassicism.
Cartouches were placed above the main entrances to buildings and window openings, in the tympanums of pediments, in the interiors of buildings, on monuments, on tombstones and documents. Similar images in an oval or round frame are called medallions.
(from the English molding, molding - in this case “cast part”, from “casting”) - a decorative part in the form of an applied convex strip. Used for decoration various surfaces: walls, ceilings, doors, fireplaces, arches, giving them a more expressive, complete and neat look. Molding can serve as frames for mirrors, medallions and trims.
in architecture, as a rule, it is a supporting element of the protruding parts of a building and is a projection in the wall, often profiled and decorated (with decorative curls or other decorations). Such brackets are used mainly in architecture that uses order elements, and are used to support balconies, strongly protruding decorative and/or functional cornices, etc.
(Italian zoccolo, lit. shoe on a wooden sole) - the foot of a building, structure, monument, column and similar structures, lying on the foundation, often protruding in relation to the upper parts of the structure. Can be decoratively lined. IN strip foundations the plinth can be the upper part of the foundation itself, in columnar plinths the wall between the pillars. Plinths in relation to external walls are classified into recessed, protruding and flush (located in the same plane with the wall).
Archivolt(Italian archivolto, Latin arcus volutus - “framing arc”) - the frame of an arched opening, separating the arc of the arch from the plane of the wall. As a rule, it serves as an element of decoration of facades and interiors. An archivolt can also be described as a molded architrave, or a curved rod framing the front surface of an arch or window.
(Latin porta - door, gate) - the architecturally designed main entrance of a large structure, as a rule, having a large-scale frame with detailed ornamentation.
- a continuous row of equal arches. An arcade with an order colonnade is called an order arcade.
(German) Erker) - part of the room protruding beyond the plane of the facade. It allows you to increase the internal space of the home, as well as improve its illumination and insolation, and therefore the bay window is usually glazed, often along the entire perimeter.
- this is a vertical groove on the trunk of a column or pilaster (such columns are called fluted, as opposed to smooth).
The article lists the main architectural elements facade and walls. Facade architecture is very diverse; there are also a large number of other elements of building facades and decor.
