Environmental monitoring as an information system. Lesson “The concept of environmental monitoring. Types and methods of monitoring. Environmental monitoring
By scale There are basic (background), global, regional, and impact monitoring.
on methods of conducting and objects of observation: aviation, space, surrounding a person environment.
Base monitoring monitors general biosphere, mainly natural, phenomena without imposing regional anthropogenic influences on them.
Global monitoring monitors global processes and phenomena in the Earth's biosphere and its ecosphere, including all their environmental components (the main material and energy components of ecological systems), and warns about emerging extreme situations.
Regional monitoring monitors processes and phenomena within a certain region, where these processes and phenomena may differ both in natural nature and in anthropogenic influences from the basic background characteristic of the entire biosphere.
Impact monitoring is monitoring of regional and local anthropogenic impacts in particularly dangerous zones and places.
Monitoring the human environment monitors the state of the natural environment around humans and prevents emerging critical situations that are harmful or dangerous to the health of people and other living organisms.
The implementation of monitoring requires the use of fairly well-developed mathematical software, including complexes of mathematical models of the phenomena being studied.
The development of a model of a specific phenomenon or natural system is associated with the choice of its conceptual structure and the availability of a closed package of machine programs. The most common type of models are sets of differential equations that reflect biological, geochemical and climatic processes in the system under study. In this case, the coefficients of the equations either have a specific meaning or are determined indirectly through the approximation of experimental data.
Modeling a real natural system based on experimental data and conducting numerous experiments on it allows us to obtain quantitative estimates of interactions various components communities both in natural systems and those formed as a result of invasion of the natural environment economic activity person.
Objectives of the environmental monitoring system
The objectives of the environmental monitoring system are:
Observation of chemical, biological, physical parameters (characteristics);
Ensuring the organization of operational information.
The principles underlying the organization of the system:
Collectivity;
Synchronicity;
Regular reporting.
Based on the environmental monitoring system, a nationwide system of monitoring and control over the state of the environment has been created.
The assessment of the environment and public health includes the state of atmospheric air, drinking water, food, and ionizing radiation.
Environmental passport of the enterprise
Environmental passport of the enterprise is a document that is available at every enterprise; it is drawn up in accordance with GOST 17.0.0.04-90. Protection of Nature. Environmental passport of the enterprise. General provisions.
This document contains factual data on the impact of this facility on atmospheric air and water bodies and an assessment of these impacts, soil pollution, and waste management.
The environmental passport data is updated twice a year.
EIA procedure
In accordance with existing rules any pre-project and project documentation related to any business undertakings, development of new territories, location of production facilities, design, construction and reconstruction of economic and civil facilities must contain a section “Environmental Protection” and in it - a mandatory subsection of EIA - materials on environmental impact assessment planned activities. EIA is a preliminary determination of the nature and degree of danger of all potential types of impact and an assessment of the environmental, economic and social consequences of the project; a structured process of taking into account environmental requirements in the system of preparing and making decisions on economic development.
EIA provides for variant solutions, taking into account territorial characteristics and interests of the population. The EIA is organized and provided by the project customer with the involvement of competent organizations and specialists. In many cases, conducting an EIA requires special engineering and environmental surveys.
Main sections of the EIA
1. Identification of sources of influence using experimental data, expert assessments, creation of installations for mathematical modeling, literature analysis, etc. As a result, sources, types and objects of impact are identified.
2. Quantitative assessment of impact types can be carried out using the balance or instrumental method. When using the balance method, the amount of emissions, discharges, and waste is determined. The instrumental method is the measurement and analysis of results.
3. Forecasting changes in the natural environment. A probabilistic forecast of environmental pollution is given taking into account climatic conditions, wind patterns, background concentrations, etc.
4. Forecasting emergency situations. A forecast of possible emergency situations, causes and likelihood of their occurrence is given. For each emergency situation, preventive measures are provided.
5. Determining ways to prevent negative consequences. Opportunities to reduce impacts using special measures are identified. technical means protection, technology, etc.
6. Selection of methods for monitoring the state of the environment and residual consequences. A monitoring and control system must be provided for in the designed technological scheme.
7. Ecological and economic assessment of design options. The impact assessment is carried out for all possible options with an analysis of damages and compensation costs for protection from harmful impacts after the project is implemented.
8. Presentation of results. Carried out in the form of a separate section of the project document, which is a mandatory appendix and contains, in addition to the materials of the EIA list, a copy of approval from the Ministry of Health, state supervisory authorities responsible for the use natural resources, the conclusion of the departmental examination, the conclusion of the public examination and the main disagreements.
Environmental assessment
Environmental assessment – establishing the compliance of the planned economic and other activities with environmental requirements and determining the admissibility of the implementation of the object of environmental assessment in order to prevent possible adverse impacts of this activity on the environment and the associated social, economic and other consequences of the implementation of the object of environmental assessment ().
Environmental expertise involves a special study of economic and technical projects, objects and processes in order to make a reasonable conclusion about their compliance with environmental requirements, standards and regulations.
Environmental assessment, therefore, performs the functions of a promising preventive control project documentation and at the same time functions supervision for the environmental compliance of project implementation results. According to Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Expertise” These types of control and supervision are carried out by environmental authorities.
Law of the Russian Federation “On Environmental Expertise”(Article 3) states principles of environmental assessment, namely:
Presumptions of potential environmental hazards of any planned economic and other activities;
Mandatory conduct of a state environmental impact assessment before making decisions on the implementation of an environmental impact assessment project;
Comprehensive assessment of the impact of economic and other activities on the environment and its consequences;
Obligations to take into account requirements environmental safety when conducting an environmental assessment;
Reliability and completeness of information submitted for environmental assessment;
Independence of environmental impact experts in the exercise of their powers in the field of environmental impact assessment;
Scientific validity, objectivity and legality of environmental assessment conclusions;
Openness, participation of public organizations (associations), taking into account public opinion;
Responsibility of participants in environmental assessment and interested parties for the organization, conduct, and quality of environmental assessment.
Control questions
1. Formulate the concepts of monitoring, environmental monitoring.
2. Name the types of environmental monitoring.
3. Formulate the objectives and principles of organizing an environmental monitoring system.
4. What is an enterprise’s environmental passport and its contents?
5. What is the EIA procedure? For what purpose is it carried out?
6. List the sequence of stages of conducting an EIA.
7. What does environmental assessment include?
8. Formulate the principles of environmental assessment.
Types of damage from environmental pollution
The most objective criterion used in environmental assessment is the damage caused to the economy as a result of environmental pollution.
Distinguish between damage three types: actual, possible and prevented.
Under actual Damage refers to the actual losses and damage caused to the economy as a result of environmental pollution.
Possible damage is the damage to the economy that could have occurred in the absence of environmental protection measures.
Under prevented Damage refers to the difference between possible and actual damage.
The methodology for calculating damage involves taking into account the damage caused by increased morbidity in the population; damage to agriculture, housing, communal and household services, industry and other types of damage.
The calculations are of an estimation nature due to the lack of reliable natural science and sociological information.
Environmental monitoring of the environment is modern form implementation of environmental activity processes using information technology, which ensures regular assessment and forecasting of Sipan's living environment of society and the operating conditions of ecosystems for the adoption management decisions on environmental safety, conservation of the natural environment and rational use of natural resources. Environmental monitoring is an information system for observing, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the environment, created with the aim of highlighting the anthropogenic component of these changes against the background of natural processes.
Back in the late 60s, many countries realized that it was necessary to coordinate efforts to collect, store and process environmental data. In 1972, a conference on environmental protection was held in Stockholm under the auspices of the UN, where for the first time the need arose to agree on a definition of the concept of “monitoring”. It was decided to understand environmental monitoring as a comprehensive system of observations, assessments and forecasts of changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic factors. The term appeared in addition to the term “environmental control.” Currently, monitoring is understood as a set of observations of certain components of the biosphere, specially organized in space and time, as well as an adequate set of environmental forecasting methods.
The main tasks of environmental monitoring: monitoring the state of the biosphere, assessing and forecasting its state, determining the degree of anthropogenic impact on the environment, identifying factors and sources of impact. The ultimate goal of environmental monitoring is to optimize human relations with nature and the environmental orientation of economic activity.
Environmental monitoring arose at the intersection of ecology, economics, biology, geography, geophysics, geology and other sciences. Highlight different kinds monitoring depending on the criteria: bioecological (sanitary and hygienic) Geoecological (natural and economic) production and environmental; biosphere (global) geophysical; climatic; biological; public health, etc.
Depending on the purpose, general, crisis and background environmental monitoring of the environment is carried out under special programs (Fig. 14.1).
Rice. 14.1. Types and levels of environmental monitoring system
Source: compiled according to data from the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources of Ukraine: [ Electronic resource]. - Access mode: menr.gov.ua/monitoring
General environmental monitoring - these are optimal places, parameters and frequency of environmental observations in terms of quantity and placement, which allow, based on assessment and forecasting of the state of the environment, to support the adoption of appropriate decisions at all levels of departmental and national environmental activities.
Crisis environmental monitoring - these are intensive observations of natural objects, sources of man-made impact, located in areas of environmental tension, in accident and dangerous zones natural phenomena with harmful environmental consequences, with the aim of ensuring a timely response to crisis and emergency environmental situations and making decisions to eliminate them, creating normal conditions for the life of the population and economy.
Background environmental monitoring - these are long-term comprehensive studies of specially designated objects of environmental protection zones in order to assess and predict changes in the state of ecosystems remote from industrial and economic activities, or to obtain information to determine the average statistical (background) level of environmental pollution in anthropogenic conditions.
In Ukraine, monitoring of the natural environment is carried out by many departments, within the framework of whose activities the corresponding tasks, levels and components of the monitoring subsystem are implemented. So, for example, in the monitoring system carried out in Ukraine, there are three levels of environmental monitoring environment: global, regional and local.
Purpose, methodological approaches and practice of monitoring on various levels are different. The criteria for the quality of the natural environment are most clearly defined at the local level. The purpose of regulation here is to ensure such a strategy does not bring the concentrations of certain priority anthropogenic pollutants to an acceptable range, which is a kind of standard. It represents the values of maximum permissible concentrations (MPC), which are established by law. Compliance of the quality of the natural environment with standards is monitored by the relevant supervisory authorities. The task of monitoring at the local level is to determine the parameters of the “emission field - concentration field” models. The object of influence at the local level is a person.
At the regional level, the approach to monitoring is based on the fact that pollutants, having entered the cycle of substances in the biosphere, change the state of the abiotic component and, as a consequence, cause changes in the biota. Any economic activity carried out on a regional scale affects the regional background - it changes the state of equilibrium of the abiotic and biological components. For example, the state of vegetation cover, primarily forests, significantly affects climatic conditions region.
The goals of global monitoring are determined in the process of international cooperation within the framework of various international organizations, agreements (conventions) and declarations. Global environmental monitoring includes seven areas:
1. Organization and expansion of a warning system about threats to human health.
2. Assessment of global air pollution and its impact on climate.
3. Assessment of the quantity and distribution of contaminants in biological systems, especially in the food chain.
4. Assess critical issues that arise from agricultural activities and land use.
5. Assessment of the responses of terrestrial ecosystems to environmental influences.
6. Assessment of ocean pollution and the impact of pollution on marine organisms.
7. Establishment of an improved international disaster warning system.
The state environmental monitoring system carries out the following types of work: routine observations, operational work, special work. Regular work is carried out systematically following annual programs, at specially organized observation points. The need to perform operational work depends on cases of emergency pollution of the natural environment or natural disasters; These works are performed in emergency situations.
Creation and operation State system environmental monitoring of the environment should contribute to the implementation of state environmental policy, which provides for:
Environmentally rational use of the natural and socio-economic potential of the state, preservation of a favorable living environment for society;
Social, environmental and economically rational solution to problems arising from environmental pollution, hazardous natural phenomena, man-made accidents and disasters;
Development of international cooperation on the conservation of natural biodiversity, protection of the ozone layer of the atmosphere, prevention of anthropogenic climate change, forest protection and reforestation, transboundary environmental pollution, restoration of the natural state of the Dnieper, Danube, Black and Azov Seas.
The state environmental monitoring system should become an integrated information system that will collect, store and process environmental information for departmental and comprehensive assessment and forecast of the state of natural environments, biota and living conditions, and develop informed recommendations for making effective social, economic and environmental decisions in the future. all levels of state executive power, improvement of relevant legislative acts, as well as fulfillment of Ukraine’s obligations under international environmental agreements, programs, projects and events.
The functioning of the State Environmental Monitoring System is implemented according to the principles:
Systematic observations of the state of the natural environment and man-made objects that affect it, or are considered environmentally unstable;
Timely receipt and processing of observational data at departmental and general (local, regional and state) levels;
Comprehensive use of environmental information entering the system from departmental environmental monitoring services and other suppliers;
The objectivity of primary, analytical and forecast environmental information and the consistency of regulatory, organizational and methodological support for environmental monitoring of the environment carried out by the relevant services of ministries and departments of Ukraine and other central executive authorities;
Compatibility of technical, information and software its components; efficiency of communicating environmental information to executive authorities, other interested bodies, enterprises, organizations and institutions;
Availability of environmental information to the population of Ukraine and the world community.
The state environmental monitoring system must ensure the achievement of the following main goals:
1) increasing the level of adequacy of its information model to the actual ecological state of the environment;
2) increasing the efficiency of obtaining and reliability of primary data through the use of advanced techniques at all levels of government and local government;
3) increasing the level and quality of information services for consumers of environmental information at all levels of system operation based on network access to distributed departmental and integrated data banks;
4) integrated processing and use of information to make appropriate decisions.
So, monitoring implements a system of observations that make it possible to identify changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity. The main blocks of this system are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of: the natural environment; anthropogenic changes in the state of the abiotic component of the biosphere (in particular changes in levels of environmental pollution), the feedback of ecosystems to these changes and anthropogenic shifts associated with the influence of pollution, agricultural use of land, deforestation, transport development, urbanization, etc. Modern stage development of society provides for the introduction of the latest technologies into all spheres of life information technologies, the use of significant amounts of information and, accordingly, the presence of new and broad knowledge. It is necessary to develop an information strategy, including the development of the most effective methods for its selection, processing and dissemination, which requires updating and development of the monitoring system itself.
Decisions of government and municipal government, aimed at normalizing the environmental situation, ensuring environmental safety and environmental well-being of the population must be adequate to this situation. The validity and efficiency of these decisions is determined by the availability of objective and timely information about the current and predicted environmental situation.
Under the environmental safety understand a state in which the interests of the individual, society, nature and the state are protected from any threats created by anthropogenic or natural impacts on the environment.
The mechanism that ensures the discovery of real relationships between sources of deformation of the natural environment, living conditions and health status of the population is a monitoring system.
Environmental monitoring (environmental monitoring)- This complex system carried out according to scientifically based programs interrelated work on regular monitoring on the state of the environment, assessment and forecast its changes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.
The main task of environmental monitoring is to provide state authorities and local governments, organizations and citizens with timely, regular and reliable information about the state of the environment and its impact on public health, as well as forecasts of changes in the environmental situation, for the development and implementation of measures to improve the natural environment and ensuring environmental safety. Monitoring data is the basis for information support for decision-making, prioritization in the field of environmental activities in order to develop economic policies that adequately take environmental factors into account.
Environmental monitoring system is a set of mutually linked legal acts, management structures, scientific organizations and enterprises, technical and information means.
Objects of environmental monitoring are:
- components of the natural environment - lands, subsoil, soils, surface and The groundwater, atmospheric air, levels of radiation and energy pollution, as well as ozone layer atmosphere and near-Earth space, which together provide favorable conditions for the existence of life on Earth;
- natural objects - natural ecological systems, natural landscapes and their constituent elements;
- natural-anthropogenic objects - natural objects transformed in the process of economic activity or objects created by man and having recreational and protective significance;
- sources of anthropogenic impact on the natural environment, including potentially hazardous objects.
Since information about the state of the natural environment is primarily used to assess the impact of the habitat on the health of the population, monitoring objects often also include population groups exposed to environmental factors.
Monitoring of natural environments and objects is carried out at various levels:
Global (according to international programs and projects);
Federal (for the territory of Russia as a whole);
Territorial (within the territory of the relevant subjects Russian Federation);
Local (within the limits of a natural-technogenic system used by a nature user who has received a license for a particular type of activity).
The task global monitoring is to ensure observations, control and forecast of changes in the biosphere as a whole. Therefore, it is also called biosphere or background monitoring.
The development and coordination of the global environmental monitoring system (GEMS) is carried out by UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization within the framework of various international programs and projects. The main goals of these programs are:
Assessment of the impact of global air pollution on climate;
Assessment of pollution of the World Ocean and the impact of pollution on marine ecosystems and the biosphere;
Assess critical issues arising from agricultural activities and land use;
Creation of an international disaster warning system.
RF complex background monitoring stations are located in 6 biosphere reserves and are part of global international observation networks.
When implementing global monitoring programs, a special place is occupied by monitoring the state of the environment from space. Earth space remote sensing (ERS) systems make it possible to obtain unique information about the functioning of various ecosystems at the regional and global levels, and about the consequences of natural and environmental disasters. An example of a global monitoring program is the Environmental Observation System (EOS), implemented in the United States. It is based on the processing of data received from three satellites equipped with video spectrometers, radiometers, lidars, radio altimeters and other equipment.
State environmental monitoring in the Russian Federation is carried out on the state of atmospheric air, water bodies, objects of fauna, forests, geological environment, land, specially protected natural areas, as well as sources of anthropogenic impact. Observation, assessment and forecast of the state of individual components of the natural environment and sources of anthropogenic impact are carried out within the framework of the relevant functional subsystem of environmental monitoring. The organization of monitoring within the framework of the functional subsystem is assigned to the relevant federal departments specially authorized by the Government of the Russian Federation.
Functional subsystems for monitoring the state of atmospheric air, soil pollution, surface waters land and marine environment (as part of monitoring of surface water bodies) are combined into State Service for Monitoring Environmental Pollution (GSN), operating in Russia for more than a quarter of a century. Its organizational basis is the monitoring system Federal service on hydrometeorology and monitoring of the natural environment (Roshydromet), which includes territorial bodies (administrations) and an observation network consisting of stationary and mobile posts, stations, laboratories and information processing centers.
The Roshydromet monitoring system provides the bulk of information on the state and pollution of the natural environment on the territory of the Russian Federation. Summarized data obtained by the State Observation Service are published in the annual State Report on the state of the natural environment and the impact of environmental factors on the health of the population of the Russian Federation.
Currently, the Roshydromet monitoring system monitors:
The state of air pollution in cities and industrial centers;
The state of soil contamination with pesticides and heavy metals;
The state of surface waters of land and seas;
Over the transboundary transport of pollutants in the atmosphere;
Behind chemical composition, acidity of precipitation and snow cover; for background air pollution;
For radioactive contamination of the natural environment.
The entire range of work in the GOS, starting with planning the location of the observation network and ending with information processing algorithms, is regulated by the relevant regulatory and methodological documents.
Should be described in more detail State air pollution monitoring system . Observations of the level of air pollution in cities and industrial centers of Russia are carried out by territorial departments for hydrometeorology and environmental monitoring. Together with Roshydromet organizations, observations are carried out by sanitary and epidemiological supervision bodies and other departments licensed by Roshydromet.
Observations are made at stationary, route and mobile posts according to a full program 4 times a day or a shortened program - 3 times a day. The list of pollutants subject to control is established taking into account the volume and composition of emissions for each area as a result of a preliminary survey. The concentrations of both the main pollutants for all territories (suspended substances, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and dioxide, sulfur dioxide) and substances specific to individual territories (ammonia, formaldehyde, phenol, hydrogen sulfide, carbon disulfide, hydrogen fluoride, acrolein, benzene) are determined. )pyrene, heavy metals, aromatic hydrocarbons, etc.). Simultaneously with air sampling, meteorological parameters are determined: wind direction and speed, air temperature and humidity, weather conditions, and gamma background levels. The collection and processing of the results of most analyzes is carried out within 24 hours.
In the event of weather conditions unfavorable for the dispersion of pollutants, so-called “storm warnings” are transmitted to the largest enterprises in the region to carry out measures to temporarily reduce emissions.
E environmental monitoring at the territorial level includes the following types observations:
- emissions monitoring - monitoring of a source (or type of activity) that has a negative impact on the environment (emission of pollutants, electromagnetic radiation, noise, etc.);
- impact monitoring – observations of the impact on the natural environment related to the control of a specific source or type of anthropogenic activity (in particular, monitoring of areas of direct impact);
- monitoring of the natural environment and ecosystems - monitoring the state of components of the natural environment, natural resources, natural and technical systems, natural complexes, biological objects and ecosystems, as well as the anthropogenic impacts on them of the entire set of existing sources and activities (monitoring of the anthropogenic background).
At the territorial level, it is of particular importance monitoring of pollution sources environment and their zones direct influence . This type of monitoring, unlike all others, is directly related to managing sources of pollution and ensuring the environmental safety of the population. The objects of monitoring are sources of pollution entering the environment belonging to industrial, agricultural, transport and other enterprises, as well as places of disposal (storage, burial) of toxic waste.
Monitoring is carried out within the framework of the powers of environmental authorities to state environmental control and is carried out in the form of targeted inspections of individual enterprises, comprehensive inspections (city, enterprise). The number of such inspections is limited (1-2 per year).
Instrumental control is carried out by the technological inspection for control of pollution sources with analysis of samples in stationary conditions and in mobile laboratories.
The bulk of observations of sources is carried out within the framework of production environmental control . The scheme for organizing monitoring of pollution sources is shown in Fig. 10.1.
Environmental quality management consists of influencing natural resources users in such a way that the characteristics of environmental quality approach the standard characterized by the relevant standards. Control actions in this system can be of the following types:
Fig. 10.1. Scheme of organization of monitoring of the source of exposure
Changes in payment standards for environmental use, MPE, PDS standards; forced change technological process;
Change geographical location man-made object (up to the removal of production from the city);
Changing connections between objects.
The frequency of control actions lies in a wide range - from several years (with the planned establishment of MPE and MPD standards) to several hours (in the event of emergency situations or unfavorable weather conditions).
Thus, the monitoring system is a tool for obtaining necessary information. What its effectiveness will be depends on the legal framework and the consistency of executive authorities in its application.
Environmental control
In order to ensure compliance with environmental requirements, norms, rules and state standards In the field of environmental protection, subjects of economic and other activities that have a negative impact on the natural environment implement an environmental control system.
Environmental control is a system of measures to prevent, detect and suppress violations of legislation in the field of environmental protection. The functioning of the environmental control system is the most important condition for ensuring environmental safety.
In the Russian Federation, state, industrial and public control is carried out in the field of environmental protection. Organization state environmental control entrusted to the specially authorized federal executive body, as well as state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The legislation prohibits the combination of state control functions in the field of environmental protection and management functions in the field of economic use of natural resources. State environmental control is implemented through inspections of any organizations and enterprises, regardless of their form of ownership, by state inspectors in the field of environmental protection. Full inspections cover the entire range of issues related to environmental activities. During targeted inspections, the individual issues environmental activities (operation of gas and water treatment facilities, condition of landfills, sludge reservoirs, implementation of the environmental action plan, implementation of previously issued instructions). Targeted inspections also include supervision of the progress of construction and reconstruction of facilities, inspection of enterprises based on applications and appeals from citizens.
State inspectors in the field of environmental protection, in the performance of their official duties, have broad rights and powers - from issuing orders legal entities to eliminate environmental violations before suspending the activities of enterprises in case of violation of environmental legislation.
Industrial environmental control carried out by business entities that have or are capable of having a negative impact on the environment.
Industrial environmental control is limited to the framework of the technological production cycle and is aimed at confirming compliance by the enterprise - the user of natural resources with established environmental standards, regulations and rules, as well as the implementation of measures for the protection and improvement of the environment, rational use and restoration of natural resources. This goal is achieved subject to the organization of effective continuous monitoring of established indicators for each source of direct environmental impact associated with environmental risk for the environment (as a result of disruption of the technological process, deviation from the design operating mode of equipment, man-made accidents and disasters).
Due to imperfection existing methods control of pollutants, assessment of their toxicity, distribution in the environment, the possibility of negative changes in natural environments under the influence of this enterprise is not excluded. Taking this into account, the legislation provides for the obligation of the enterprise-user of natural resources to organize quality control of natural environments in the zone of its direct influence (local environmental monitoring).
Industrial environmental control solves the following problems:
Control of atmospheric emissions and discharges Wastewater, water consumption and water disposal directly at the boundaries of the technological process (sources of emissions, discharges) to assess compliance with the standards of maximum permissible limits, maximum permissible limits and the effectiveness of regulating emissions into the atmosphere in particularly adverse weather conditions (NMC);
Monitoring the operating mode of technological and auxiliary environmental equipment and facilities associated with the formation, release and capture of pollutants, generation and storage of waste; assessment of environmental safety of products;
The main objects of industrial environmental control are:
Raw materials, materials, reagents, drugs used in production;
Sources of emissions of pollutants into the atmospheric air;
Sources of discharge of pollutants into water bodies, sewerage and wastewater systems;
Exhaust gas purification systems;
Wastewater treatment systems;
Recycling water supply systems;
Storage facilities and warehouses for raw materials and materials;
Waste disposal and disposal facilities;
Finished products.
In some cases, the scope of industrial environmental control includes individual natural objects (control of thermal and chemical pollution of reservoirs and watercourses, groundwater).
Control of hazardous waste is organized at all stages of its management: during waste generation, its accumulation, transportation, processing and neutralization, burial, as well as after burial by monitoring burial sites.
Industrial environmental control is carried out by the environmental protection service. Laboratories that implement the functions of industrial environmental control at an enterprise must be accredited and have the appropriate licenses.
Emission sources subject to control harmful substances into the atmosphere and the discharge of wastewater into water bodies is determined on the basis of established MPE and MPD standards, as well as statistical reporting data.
The number of sources of emissions and discharges, the list of pollutants subject to control, and the control schedule are annually agreed upon by enterprises and environmental organizations with the territorial divisions of the federal authorized bodies. The schedules indicate sampling points, sampling frequency and a list of controlled ingredients.
The list of the most dangerous air pollutants subject to control at sources consists of substances from three groups: basic (dust, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and dioxide, sulfur dioxide); substances of the first hazard class; substances for which, according to observational data, a concentration of more than 5 MAC is registered in the controlled area.
The main method for monitoring atmospheric emissions and wastewater discharges should be direct instrumental measurements. The optimal scope of instrument control is established taking into account the characteristics of the technological regime. For large (main) sources of pollution, the organization of continuous automatic monitoring of emissions (discharges) must be provided.
Public environmental control carried out with the aim of realizing the rights of every person to a favorable environment and preventing environmental violations. Public environmental control involves public and other non-profit organizations in accordance with their charters, as well as citizens in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation. The results of public environmental control submitted to state authorities and local governments are subject to mandatory review.
10.5.Security questions
1.What is meant by the “presumption of environmental danger” of economic activity? What legislation establishes it?
2. In what cases is EIA carried out?
3.What is the subject of the state environmental assessment?
4.What is an environmental audit? What are environmental quality standards? Give an example of an environmental quality standard.
5.What is an environmental audit? What are environmental quality standards? Give an example of an environmental quality standard.
6.What are the standards for permissible environmental impact?
7.What is environmental safety?
8. Formulate the content and subject of environmental monitoring.
9. Levels, directions and types of environmental monitoring.
10. How is the “environmental standard” determined in the environmental monitoring system?
11.How is monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact organized?
12.What are the objectives of industrial environmental control?
13.What is state environmental control? How is it carried out?
14.What is the difference between environmental control and environmental audit?
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Of great importance in organizing rational environmental management is the study of environmental management problems at the global, regional and local levels, as well as assessment of the quality of the human environment in specific territories, in ecosystems of various ranks.
Monitoring is a system of observations, assessments and forecasts that allows us to identify changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic activities.
Along with the negative impact on nature, a person can also have a positive impact as a result of economic activity.
The monitoring includes:
monitoring changes in environmental quality and factors affecting the environment;
assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;
forecast of changes in environmental quality.
Observations can be carried out based on physical, chemical and biological indicators; integrated indicators of the state of the environment are promising.
Types of monitoring. There are global, regional and local monitoring. (What is the basis for such a distinction?)
Global monitoring allows assessing current state the entire natural system of the Earth.
Regional monitoring is carried out at the expense of the system’s stations, which receive information about territories subject to anthropogenic influence.
Rational use of natural resources is possible if there is and correct use information provided by the monitoring system.
Environmental monitoring is a system for observing, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the environment under the influence of anthropogenic impact.
Monitoring objectives are:
Quantitative and qualitative assessment of the state of air, surface water, climate change, soil cover, flora and fauna, control of wastewater and dust and gas emissions at industrial enterprises;
Drawing up a forecast about the state of the environment;
Informing citizens about changes in the environment.
Forecast and forecasting.
What is forecasting and forecasting? During different periods of social development, methods of studying the environment changed. Forecasting is currently considered one of the most important “tools” for environmental management. Translated into Russian, the word “forecast” means foresight, prediction.
Therefore, a forecast in environmental management is a prediction of changes in natural resource potential and needs for natural resources on a global, regional and local scale
Forecasting is a set of actions that allow us to make judgments regarding the behavior of natural systems and are determined by natural processes and the impact of humanity on them in the future.
The main goal of the forecast is to assess the expected response of the natural environment to direct or indirect human impact, as well as to solve problems of future rational environmental management in connection with the expected conditions of the natural environment.
In connection with the revaluation of the value system, the change from technocratic thinking to ecological, changes are also taking place in forecasting. Modern forecasts should be made from the standpoint of universal human values, the main ones of which are man, his health, the quality of the environment, and the preservation of the planet as a home for humanity. Thus, attention to living nature and to people makes forecasting tasks environmental.
Types of forecasts. Based on the lead time, the following types of forecasts are distinguished: ultra-short-term (up to a year), short-term (up to 3-5 years), medium-term (up to 10-15 years), long-term (up to several decades in advance), ultra-long-term (for millennia and more). -more forward). The lead time of the forecast, i.e. the period for which the forecast is given, can be very different. When designing a large industrial facility with a service life of 100–120 years, it is necessary to know what changes in the natural environment may occur under the influence of this facility in 2100–2200. No wonder they say: “The future is controlled from the present.”
Based on territory coverage, global, regional, and local forecasts are distinguished.
There are forecasts in specific branches of science, for example geological and meteorological forecasts. In geography - a complex forecast, which many consider general scientific.
The main functions of monitoring are quality control of individual components of the natural environment and identification of the main sources of pollution. Based on monitoring data, decisions are made to improve the environmental situation, new treatment facilities are built at enterprises that pollute the land, atmosphere and water, forest cutting systems are changed and new forests are planted, soil-protective crop rotations are introduced, etc.
Monitoring is most often carried out by regional hydrometeorological service committees through a network of points conducting the following observations: surface meteorological, heat balance, hydrological, marine, etc.
For example, monitoring of Moscow includes constant analysis of the content of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, the amount of nitrogen oxides, ozone and dust. Observations are carried out by 30 stations operating in automatic mode. Information from sensors located at stations flows to the information processing center. Information about exceeding the maximum permissible concentration of pollutants is sent to the Moscow Committee for Environmental Protection and the capital government. Industrial emissions from large enterprises and the level of water pollution in the Moscow River are automatically monitored.
There are currently 344 water monitoring stations in the world in 59 countries, which form a global environmental monitoring system.
Environmental monitoring
Monitoring(lat. monitor observing, warning) - a comprehensive system of observations, assessment and forecast of changes in the state of the biosphere or its individual elements under the influence of anthropogenic influences
Main monitoring tasks:
monitoring sources of anthropogenic impact; monitoring the state of the natural environment and the processes occurring in it under the influence of anthropogenic factors;
forecasting changes in the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic factors and assessing the predicted state of the natural environment.
Classifications of monitoring based on characteristics:
Control methods:
Bioindication - detection and determination of anthropogenic loads by the reactions of living organisms and their communities to them;
Remote methods (aerial photography, sensing, etc.);
Physico-chemical methods (analysis of individual samples of air, water, soil).
environment. This system is administered by UNEP, the UN's special environmental agency.
Types of monitoring. Based on the scale of generalization of information, they are distinguished: global, regional, impact monitoring.
Global monitoring- this is monitoring global processes and phenomena in the biosphere and making a forecast of possible changes.
Regional monitoring covers individual regions in which processes and phenomena are observed that differ from natural ones in nature or due to anthropogenic impact.
Impact monitoring is carried out in particularly hazardous areas directly adjacent to sources of pollutants.
Based on the methods of monitoring, the following types of monitoring are distinguished:
Biological (using bioindicators);
Remote (aviation and space);
Analytical (chemical and physico-chemical analysis).
The objects of observation are:
Monitoring of individual environmental components (soil, water, air);
Biological monitoring (flora and fauna).
A special type of monitoring is basic monitoring, i.e. monitoring the state of natural systems that are practically not affected by regional anthropogenic impacts (biosphere reserves). whole basic monitoring is to obtain data with which the results obtained by other types of monitoring are compared.
Control methods. The composition of pollutants is determined by methods of physical and chemical analysis (in air, soil, water). The degree of sustainability of natural ecosystems is determined by the bioindication method.
Bioindication is the detection and determination of anthropogenic loads by the reactions of living organisms and their communities to them. The essence of bioindication is that certain environmental factors create the possibility of the existence of a particular species. Objects of bioindication studies can be individual species animals and plants, as well as entire ecosystems. For example, radioactive contamination is determined by the condition of coniferous trees; industrial pollution - for many representatives of soil fauna; Air pollution is very sensitive to mosses, lichens, and butterflies.
Species diversity and high numbers or, conversely, the absence of dragonflies (Odonata) on the shore of a reservoir indicate its faunal composition: many dragonflies - the fauna is rich, few - the aquatic fauna is poor.
If lichens disappear on tree trunks in a forest, it means there is sulfur dioxide in the air. Only in clean water caddisfly larvae (Trichoptera) are found. But the small scale worm (Tubifex), the larvae of chironomids (Chironomidae) live only in heavily polluted water bodies. Many insects, green single-celled algae, and crustaceans live in slightly polluted water bodies.
Bioindication makes it possible to timely identify a level of pollution that is not yet dangerous and take measures to restore the ecological balance of the environment.
In some cases, the bioindication method is preferred because it is simpler than, for example, physicochemical methods of analysis.
Thus, English scientists discovered several molecules in the liver of flounder - indicators of pollution. When the total concentration of life-threatening substances reaches critical values, a potentially carcinogenic protein begins to accumulate in liver cells. Its quantitative determination is simpler than chemical analysis of water and provides more information about its danger to human life and health.
Remote methods are used mainly for global monitoring. For example, aerial photography is an effective method for determining the extent and extent of pollution during an oil spill at sea or on land, such as a tanker accident or a pipeline rupture. Other methods do not provide comprehensive information in these extreme situations.
OKB im. Ilyushin, the aircraft builders of the Lukhovitsky plant designed and built the Il-10Z, a unique aircraft to perform almost any task of state environmental and land monitoring. The aircraft is equipped with control, measuring and telemetric equipment, a satellite navigation system (CPS), a satellite communication system, and an interactive on-board and ground-based measuring and recording complex. The aircraft can fly at altitudes from 100 to 3000 m, stay in the air for up to 5 hours, consumes only 10-15 liters of fuel per 100 km and takes on board in addition to the pilot two specialists. The new Il-103 aircraft of the Aviation Center for Special Environmental Purposes, based at the Myachikovo airfield near Moscow, perform remote monitoring for ecologists, aviation forest protection, emergency services and oil and gas pipeline transport.
Physicochemical methods are used to monitor individual components of the natural environment: soil, water, air. These methods are based on the analysis of individual samples.
Soil monitoring involves determining acidity, humus loss, and salinity. Soil acidity is determined by the value of the hydrogen index (pH) in aqueous solutions soil. The pH value is measured using a pH meter or potentiometer. Humus content is determined by the oxidability of organic matter. The amount of oxidizing agent is assessed by titrimetric or spectrometric methods. Soil salinity, i.e., the content of salts in them, is determined by the value of electrical conductivity, since it is known that salt solutions are electrolytes.
Water pollution is determined by chemical (COD) or biochemical (BOD) oxygen consumption - this is the amount of oxygen spent on the oxidation of organic and inorganic substances contained in contaminated water.
Atmospheric pollution is analyzed by gas analyzers, which provide information about the concentration of gaseous pollutants in the air. “Multicomponent” analysis methods are used: C-, H-, N-analyzers and other devices that give continuous time characteristics of air pollution. Automated devices for remote analysis of atmospheric pollution, combining a laser and a locator, are called lidars.
Environmental quality assessment
What is assessment and evaluation?
An important area of monitoring research is assessing the quality of the environment. This direction, as you already know, has received priority importance in modern environmental management, since the quality of the environment is associated with the physical and spiritual health of a person.
Indeed, a distinction is made between a healthy (comfortable) natural environment, in which a person’s health is normal or improving, and an unhealthy environment, in which the health of the population is impaired. Therefore, to maintain the health of the population, it is necessary to monitor the quality of the environment. Environmental quality— this is the degree of correspondence of natural conditions to the physiological capabilities of a person.
There are scientific criteria for assessing environmental quality. These include standards.
Environmental quality standards. Quality standards are divided into environmental and production and economic.
Environmental standards establish maximum permissible norms of anthropogenic impact on the environment, the excess of which threatens human health and is detrimental to vegetation and animals. Such standards are established in the form of maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants (MPC) and maximum permissible levels of harmful physical impact (MPL). Remote control panels are installed, for example, for noise and electromagnetic pollution.
MPC is the amount of a harmful substance in the environment, which over a certain period of time does not affect human health and does not cause adverse consequences in his offspring.
IN Lately when determining MPCs, not only the degree of influence of pollutants on human health is taken into account, but also the impact of these pollutants as a whole on natural communities. Every year, more and more maximum permissible concentrations are established for substances in the air, soil, and water.
Production and economic environmental quality standards regulate the environmentally safe operating mode of production, public utility and any other facility. Production and economic environmental quality standards include the maximum permissible release of pollutants into the environment (MPE). How to improve the quality of the environment? Many experts are thinking about this problem. Environmental quality control is carried out by a special government service. Measures to improve environmental quality. They are combined into the following groups. The most important are technological measures, which include the development of modern technologies that ensure the integrated use of raw materials and waste disposal. Choosing a fuel with less combustion product will significantly reduce emissions into the atmosphere. This is also facilitated by the electrification of modern production, transport and everyday life.
Sanitation measures help clean up industrial emissions by various designs treatment facilities. (Are there treatment facilities at the nearest enterprises in your locality? How effective are they?)
The set of measures that improve the quality of the environment includes architectural and planning activities that affect not only physical, but also spiritual health. These include dust control, rational placement of enterprises (they are often moved outside the territory of a populated area) and residential areas, landscaping of populated areas, for example, with modern urban planning standards for cities with a population of one and a half million, 40-50 m2 of green space is required , it is mandatory to allocate sanitary protection zones in the populated area.
TO engineering and organizational Measures include reducing parking at traffic lights and reducing traffic intensity on congested highways.
To legal Activities include the establishment and compliance with legislative acts to maintain the quality of the atmosphere, water bodies, soil, etc.
Requirements related to nature protection, improvement of environmental quality are reflected in state laws, decrees, regulations. World experience shows that in developed countries, authorities solve problems related to improving the quality of the environment through legislative acts and executive structures, which, together with the judicial system, are designed to ensure the implementation of laws and finance large environmental projects And scientific developments, monitor the implementation of laws and financial costs.
There is no doubt that improvement in environmental quality will be achieved through economic events. Economic measures are primarily related to investment Money in replacement and development of new technologies that ensure energy and resource conservation, reducing emissions of harmful substances into the environment. The means of state tax and price policy must create conditions for Russia’s inclusion in the international system of ensuring environmental safety. At the same time, in our country, due to the economic recession, the volume of introduction of new environmental technologies into industry has decreased significantly.
Educational measures aimed at creating an ecological culture of the population. The quality of the environment largely depends on the formation of new value and moral attitudes, the revision of priorities, needs, and methods of human activity. In our country, within the framework of the state program “Ecology of Russia”, programs and manuals have been developed for environmental education at all levels of knowledge acquisition from preschool institutions to the advanced training system. An important means in the formation ecological culture are the media. In Russia alone there are over 50 environmentally oriented periodicals.
All activities aimed at improving the quality of the environment are closely interconnected and largely depend on the development of science. Therefore, the most important condition for the existence of all measures is the implementation scientific research ensuring improved environmental quality and environmental sustainability of both the planet as a whole and individual regions.
However, it should be noted that measures taken to improve environmental quality do not always bring a noticeable effect. Increase in population morbidity, decrease average duration people’s lives, the increase in mortality indicate the development of negative environmental phenomena in our country.
Environmental monitoring (environmental monitoring) is a comprehensive system of observing the state of the environment, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors
Types and subsystems of environmental monitoring
three stages (types, directions) of monitoring: bioecological (sanitary and hygienic), geosystemic (natural and economic) and biosphere (global)..
There are such subsystems of environmental monitoring as: geophysical monitoring (analysis of data on pollution, atmospheric turbidity, studies meteorological and hydrological data of the environment, and also studies elements of the inanimate component of the biosphere, including objects created by man); climate monitoring (service for monitoring and forecasting fluctuations climate system. Covers that part of the biosphere that influences climate formation: the atmosphere, ocean, ice cover, etc. Climate monitoring is closely linked with hydrometeorological observations.); biological monitoring (based on monitoring the reaction of living organisms to environmental pollution); population health monitoring (a system of measures for observation, analysis, assessment and forecast of the state of physical health population) etc.
IN general view the process of environmental monitoring can be represented by the following diagram: environment (or a specific environmental object) -> measurement of parameters by various monitoring subsystems -> collection and transmission of information -> processing and presentation of data (formation of generalized assessments), forecasting. In the management system, three subsystems can also be distinguished: decision making (specially authorized government agency), management of the implementation of the decision (for example, enterprise administration), implementation of the decision using various technical or other means. Methods of environmental monitoring: Remote methods
As is known, the first automatic systems for monitoring parameters external environment were created in military and space programs. In the 1950s The US air defense system has already used seven echelons of automatic buoys floating in the Pacific Ocean, but the most impressive automatic system for environmental quality control was undoubtedly implemented in the Lunokhod. One of the main sources of data for environmental monitoring is remote sensing (RS) materials. They combine all types of data received from media:
Space (manned orbital stations, reusable spacecraft, autonomous satellite imaging systems, etc.);
Aviation-based (airplanes, helicopters and micro-aviation radio-controlled vehicles
Non-contact (remote) survey methods, in addition to aerospace (Aerospace (remote) methods of environmental monitoring include an observation system using aircraft, balloons, satellites and satellite systems, as well as a remote sensing data processing system.
Physico-chemical methods
-Qualitative methods. Allows you to determine what substance is in the test sample. For example, based on chromatography.- Quantitative methods. -Gravimetric method. The essence of the method is to determine the mass and percentage of any element, ion or chemical compound, located in the test sample. - Titrimetric(volumetric) method. In this type of analysis, weighing is replaced by measuring volumes of both the substance being analyzed and the reagent used for this definition. Methods of titrimetric analysis are divided into 4 groups: a) methods of acid-base titration; b) precipitation methods; c) oxidation-reduction methods; d) complexation methods.
-Colorimetric methods. Colorimetry is one of the most simple methods absorption analysis. It is based on changes in the color shades of the test solution depending on the concentration. Colorimetric methods can be divided into visual colorimetry and photocolorimetry.
-Express methods. Express methods include instrumental methods that allow you to determine contamination in a short period of time. These methods are widely used to determine background radiation in air and water monitoring systems. - Potentiometric methods are based on changing the electrode potential depending on the physical and chemical processes occurring in the solution. They are divided into: a) direct potentiometry (ionometry); b) potentiometric titration.
Biological monitoring methods
Bioindication is a method that allows one to judge the state of the environment based on the encounter, absence, and developmental characteristics of bioindicator organisms. Bioindicators are organisms whose presence, quantity or developmental characteristics serve as indicators of natural processes, conditions or anthropogenic changes in the environment. Conditions determined using bioindicators are called bioindication objects.
Biotesting is a method that allows one to assess the quality of environmental objects in laboratory conditions using living organisms.
Assessment of biodiversity components is a set of methods comparative analysis components of biodiversity
Methods of statistical and mathematical data processing
To process environmental monitoring data, methods of computational and mathematical biology (including mathematical modeling), as well as a wide range of information technologies are used.
Geographic Information Systems
GIS is a reflection of the general trend of linking environmental data to spatial objects. According to some experts, further integration of GIS and environmental monitoring will lead to the creation of powerful EIS (environmental information systems) with dense spatial reference.
Ticket 13
1. The main reasons for the extinction of species: direct destruction (fishing), climate change, change in biotopes, introduction of competing species, chemical pollution, etc.
Man, having mastered fire and weapons, still in early periods his history began to exterminate animals. However, now the rate of extinction of species has increased sharply, and more and more new species are being drawn into the orbit of the disappearing ones, as a result of which the rate of spontaneous emergence of species is tens and even hundreds of times lower than the rate of extinction of species. Therefore, there are simplifications of both individual ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole.
The main causes of loss of biological diversity, decline in numbers and extinction of animals are disturbance of their habitat, overharvesting or fishing in prohibited areas, introduction (acclimatization) of foreign species, direct destruction for the purpose of protecting products, accidental or unintentional destruction and environmental pollution.
Habitat disruption due to deforestation, plowing of steppes, drainage of swamps, flow regulation, creation of reservoirs and other anthropogenic impacts radically changes the breeding conditions of wild animals and their migration routes, which has a very negative impact on their numbers and survival.
Harvesting refers to any removal of animals from the natural environment for various purposes. Excessive harvesting is the main reason for the decline, for example, in the number of large mammals (elephants, rhinoceroses, etc.) in Africa and Asia: the high cost of ivory on the world market leads to the annual death of about 60 thousand elephants. Hundreds of thousands of small songbirds are sold annually at bird markets in large Russian cities. Volume international trade wild birds exceeds seven million specimens, most of which die either on the road or shortly after arrival.
The introduction (acclimatization) of alien species also leads to a reduction in the number and extinction of animal species. Often local species due to the invasion of “aliens” they are on the verge of extinction. There are known examples of the negative impact of the American mink on the European mink, the Canadian beaver on the European, and the muskrat on the muskrat.
Others reasons for the decline and extinction of animals are:
Their direct destruction to protect agricultural products and fishing facilities (destruction birds of prey, ground squirrels, pinnipeds, coyotes, etc.).
- (unintentional) destruction on highways, during military operations, when mowing grass, on power lines, when regulating water flow, etc.
Environmental pollution with pesticides, oil and petroleum products, atmospheric pollutants, lead and other toxicants.
2.The concept of “thermal pollution”. Ways to reduce thermal pollution.
Thermal pollution is a type of physical (usually man-made) environmental pollution characterized by an increase in temperature above natural levels. The main sources of thermal pollution are emissions of heated exhaust gases and air into the atmosphere, and the discharge of heated wastewater into reservoirs.
The main way to reduce thermal pollution is to gradually phase out fossil fuels and switch to renewable energy using solar energy sources: light, wind and hydro resources. An auxiliary measure could be the transition from the economy of a consumer society to a resource economy.
3.Laws of the Russian Federation on environmental protection.
Environmental legislation
1. Legislation in the field of environmental protection is based on the Constitution of the Russian Federation and consists of this Federal Law, other federal laws, as well as other regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, laws and other regulatory legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation adopted in accordance with them.
2. This Federal Law is valid throughout the Russian Federation.
3. This Federal Law is valid on the continental shelf and in the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation in accordance with the norms international law and federal laws and aims to ensure the conservation of the marine environment.
4. Relations arising in the field of environmental protection as the basis for the life and activities of peoples living on the territory of the Russian Federation, in order to ensure their rights to a favorable environment, are regulated by international treaties of the Russian Federation, this Federal Law, other federal laws and other regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, laws and other regulatory legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
5. Relations arising in the field of protection and rational use of natural resources, their conservation and restoration are regulated by international treaties of the Russian Federation, land, water, forestry legislation, legislation on subsoil, wildlife, and other legislation in the field of environmental protection and natural resource management.
6. Relations arising in the field of environmental protection, to the extent necessary to ensure the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population, are regulated by legislation on the sanitary and epidemiological well-being of the population and legislation on health protection, otherwise aimed at ensuring a favorable environment for humans legislation.
7. Relations in the field of environmental protection arising when establishing mandatory requirements for products, including buildings and structures (hereinafter referred to as products), or for products and the processes of design (including surveys), production, construction, installation related to product requirements , setup, operation, storage, transportation, sales and disposal, are regulated by the legislation of the Russian Federation on technical regulation.
Ticket 14
1.Ecology -(from the Greek oikos - house, dwelling, residence and...logy), the science of the relationships of living organisms and the communities they form among themselves and with the environment. The term “ecology” was proposed in 1866 by E. Haeckel. Objects of ecology can be populations of organisms, species, communities, ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole. From ser. 20th century In connection with the increased human impact on nature, ecology has acquired special significance as the scientific basis for rational environmental management and the protection of living organisms, and the term “ecology” itself has become more broad meaning. Since the 70s 20th century human ecology is taking shape, or social ecology, studying the patterns of interaction between society and the environment, as well as practical problems of its protection; includes various philosophical, sociological, economic, geographical and other aspects (for example, urban ecology, technical ecology, environmental ethics, etc.). In this sense, they talk about “greening” modern science. Environmental problems generated by modern social development have given rise to a number of socio-political movements (Greens, etc.) opposing environmental pollution and other negative consequences of scientific and technological progress.
2. The problem of degradation of the Earth's ozone layer. Environmental consequences.
The maximum concentration of ozone is concentrated in the troposphere at altitudes of 15–30 km, where the ozone layer exists. At normal surface pressure, all atmospheric ozone would form a layer only 3 mm thick.
The ozone layer is thinner in equatorial regions and thicker in polar regions. It is characterized by significant variability in time and area (up to 20%) due to fluctuations in solar radiation and atmospheric circulation, which masks anthropogenic impacts.
Even with such low power the ozone layer in the stratosphere plays a very important role important role, protecting living organisms of the Earth from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Ozone absorbs its hard part with wavelengths of 100–280 nm and most of the radiation with wavelengths of 280–315 nm. In addition, ozone absorption ultraviolet radiation leads to heating of the stratosphere and largely determines its thermal regime and the dynamic processes occurring in it. Exposure to hard ultraviolet radiation is associated with incurable forms of skin cancer, eye diseases, disorders of the human immune system, adverse effects on the life of plankton in the ocean, decreased grain yield and other geo-ecological consequences.
It is assumed that life on Earth arose after the formation of the ozone layer in the Earth’s atmosphere, when its reliable protection was formed. Particularly great interest in ozone arose in the 70s, when anthropogenic changes in ozone content were discovered as a result of emissions of nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere as a result of atomic explosions in the atmosphere, aircraft flights in the stratosphere, when using mineral fertilizers and fuel combustion. However, the most powerful anthropogenic factor that destroys ozone are fluorine and chlorine derivatives of methane, ethane and cyclobutane.
These compounds are given the name freons. They are widely used in the production of refrigerators and air conditioners, and aerosol packaging. Bromine-containing compounds, which are also a product of human activity, destroy ozone even more effectively. They are released into the atmosphere as a result of agricultural production, biomass combustion, and engine operation. internal combustion etc.
Due to human activities since the late 1960s. until 1995 The ozone layer has lost about 5% of its mass. It is expected that the maximum loss of stratospheric ozone will be reached by the beginning of the 21st century. followed by gradual restoration during the first half in accordance with the Ozone Layer Convention.
Due to the exceptional importance of the ozone layer for the preservation of life on Earth in 1985. The Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was signed in Vienna. In 1987 The Montreal Protocol to ban emissions of ozone-depleting substances into the atmosphere was signed. UN General Assembly in December 1994 decided to declare September 16 as International Day for the Preservation of the Earth's Ozone Layer.
Currently, there is suppression of growth and a decrease in plant productivity in those regions where the thinning of the ozone layer is most pronounced, sunburn of foliage, death of tomato seedlings, sweet peppers, and diseases of cucumbers.
The number of phytoplankton, which forms the basis of the food pyramid of the World Ocean, is declining. In Chile, cases of loss of vision have been recorded in fish, sheep and rabbits, the death of growth buds in trees, the synthesis of an unknown red pigment by algae, which causes poisoning of marine animals and humans, as well as “devil's bullets” - molecules that, at low concentrations in water, have a mutagenic effect. on the genome, and at higher levels – an effect similar to radiation damage. They are not subject to biodegradation, neutralization, and are not destroyed by boiling - in a word, there is no protection against them.
In the surface layers of the soil, there is an acceleration of variability, a change in the composition and relationship between the communities of microorganisms living there.
A person's immune system is suppressed, the number of cases of allergosis is growing, accelerated aging of tissues is observed, especially the eyes, cataracts are more likely to form, the incidence of skin cancer is increasing, and pigmented formations on the skin become malignant. It has been noticed that these negative phenomena often result from staying on the beach for several hours on a sunny day.
3.Maximum concentrations of pollutants in atmospheric air: types, units of measurement. Which government agency sets these standards?
A feature of the standardization of atmospheric air quality is the dependence of the impact of pollutants present in the air on the health of the population not only on the value of their concentrations, but also on the duration of the time interval during which a person breathes this air.
Therefore, in the Russian Federation, as well as throughout the world, for pollutants, as a rule, 2 standards are established:
1) standard calculated for a short period of exposure to pollutants. This standard is called “maximum permissible maximum single concentrations”.
1) standard calculated for a longer period of exposure (8 hours, a day, for some substances a year). In the Russian Federation, this standard is established for 24 hours and is called “maximum permissible average daily concentrations.”
MPC - maximum permissible concentration pollutant in the atmospheric air - a concentration that does not have a direct or indirect adverse effect on the present or future generation throughout life, does not reduce a person’s performance, does not worsen his well-being and sanitary living conditions. MPC values are given in mg/m3. (GN 2.1.6.695-98)
MPC MR – maximum permissible single concentration chemical substance in the air of populated areas, mg/m3. This concentration, when inhaled for 20-30 minutes, should not cause reflex reactions in the human body.
Maximum permissible average daily concentration of a chemical substance in the air of populated areas, mg/m3. This concentration should not have any direct or indirect harmful effects on humans if inhaled indefinitely (years).
State administration in the field of atmospheric air protection is carried out by the Government of the Russian Federation directly or through a specially authorized federal executive body in the field of atmospheric air protection, as well as by state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The structure of federal government bodies in the field of atmospheric air protection is presented in Figure 2.11.
The State Committee for Ecology of Russia, as a specially authorized federal executive body in the field of atmospheric air protection, carries out intersectoral coordination and activities in the field of atmospheric air protection together with other federal executive authorities within their competence and interacts with executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
Ticket No. 15
1.Basic laws of ecology.
Basic laws of ecology:
· The law of the indispensability of the biosphere: the biosphere is the only system that ensures the stability of the habitat in the event of any disturbances that arise. There is no reason to hope for the construction of artificial communities that provide environmental stabilization to the same extent as natural communities.
· Law of biogenic migration of atoms (V.I. Vernadsky): migration chemical elements on the earth's surface and in the biosphere as a whole is carried out with the direct participation of living matter - biogenic migration.
· The law of physical and chemical unity of living matter: general biosphere law - living matter is physical and chemically united; Despite all the different qualities of living organisms, they are so physicochemically similar that what is harmful to some is not indifferent to others (for example, pollutants).
· Redi's principle: living things come only from living things; there is an impassable boundary between living and non-living matter, although there is constant interaction.
· The law of unity “organism – environment”: life develops as a result of constant exchange of matter and information based on the flow of energy in the total unity of the environment and the organisms inhabiting it.
· The law of unidirectional energy flow: the energy received by the community and assimilated by producers is dissipated or, together with their biomass, is transferred to consumers, and then to decomposers with a decrease in flow at each trophic level; since an insignificant amount of initially involved energy (maximum 0.35%) enters the reverse flow (from decomposers to producers) it is impossible to speak of an “energy cycle”; There is only a circulation of substances supported by the flow of energy.
· The law of irreversibility of evolution by L. Dollo: an organism (population, species) cannot return to the previous state already achieved in the series of its ancestors, even after returning to their habitat.
· R. Lindemann's 10 percent law (rule): average maximum transition from one trophic level ecological pyramid on another 10% of energy (or matter in energetic terms), as a rule, does not lead to adverse consequences for the ecosystem and the trophic level losing energy.
· The law of tolerance (W. Shelford): the limiting factor in the prosperity of an organism (species) can be either a minimum or maximum environmental impact, the range between which determines the amount of endurance (tolerance) of the organism to this factor.
· Law of optimum: any environmental factor has certain limits of positive influence on living organisms.
· The law of the limiting factor (J. Liebig's law of the minimum): the most significant factor is the one that deviates the most from the optimal values for the body; depends on him this moment survival of individuals; the substance present in the minimum controls growth.
· Gause's law (principle) of exclusion: two species cannot exist in the same area if their ecological needs are identical, i.e. if they occupy the same ecological niche.
· B. Commoner’s “laws” of ecology: 1) everything is connected to everything; 2) everything has to go somewhere; 3) nature “knows” better; 4) nothing comes for free.
Several consequences follow from the law of universal connection (“everything is connected to everything”):
Law of Large Numbers - Cumulative Action large number random factors leads to a result that is almost independent of chance, that is, having a systemic character. Thus, myriads of bacteria in soil, water, and in the bodies of living organisms create a special, relatively stable microbiological environment necessary for the normal existence of all living things. Or another example: the random behavior of a large number of molecules in a certain volume of gas determines quite definite values of temperature and pressure.
Le Chatelier's (Brown) principle - when an external influence takes the system out of a state of stable equilibrium, this equilibrium shifts in the direction in which the effect external influence decreases. At the biological level, it is realized in the form of the ability of ecosystems to self-regulate.
The law of optimality - any system functions with the greatest efficiency within certain spatio-temporal limits characteristic of it.
Any systemic changes in nature have a direct or indirect impact on humans - from the state of the individual to complex social relations.
At least two postulates of practical importance follow from the law of conservation of mass of matter (“everything must go somewhere”).
The law of system development at the expense of its environment states: any natural or social system can develop only through the use of the material, energy and information capabilities of the environment. Absolutely isolated self-development is impossible.
The law of the inevitability of waste or side effects production, according to which the waste generated in the process of production activities cannot be eliminated without a trace, they can only be transferred from one form to another or moved in space, and their effect can be extended in time. This law excludes the fundamental possibility of waste-free production and consumption in modern society. Matter does not disappear, but only passes from one form to another, influencing life.
Related information.
