General concepts of environmental management. Rational and irrational environmental management
I. Introduction………………………………………………………….…….page 3.
. Main part.
1. Definition of environmental management…………………………………….page 4.
2. Natural resources and their classification……………………………..page 4.
3. Rational and irrational use of natural resources………………page 9.
4. Principles of rational environmental management
and low-waste technologies……………………………………......page 10.
5. Objectives of state environmental planning.........page 14.
III. Conclusion………………………………………………………....page 17.
V. List of references……………..……..…page 18.
Introduction
The topic of my essay is “Ecology and environmental management.” The purpose of its writing: to study the basics of environmental management.
Tasks that must be completed during the work:
Study natural resources and their use in the economy;
Identify the basic principles of rational environmental management;
Study the system of state environmental planning.
Nature is the habitat of man and the source of all the benefits he needs for life and production activities. Man is a part of nature, its creation, he can produce only using its resources, and live only in those natural conditions (temperature, pressure, humidity, atmospheric composition, etc.) to which he is genetically adapted.
For many years, striving to conquer nature and dominate it, man unexpectedly found himself on the verge of an environmental disaster.
There is hardly a more important global problem than rational use of natural resources and protection environment.
1. Definition of environmental management.
The process of exploiting natural resources in order to satisfy the material and cultural needs of society is called environmental management. It can be rational (reasonable) and irrational. The very concept of rationality presupposes reliance on reason and knowledge. Therefore, environmental management also includes science that develops general principles carrying out any activity related to the use of natural resources and the impact on them, which will help avoid environmental disaster.
Nature management includes:
protection, renewal and reproduction of natural resources, their extraction and processing;
use and protection of natural conditions of the human living environment;
preservation, restoration and rational change of the ecological balance of natural systems;
regulation of human reproduction and human numbers.
Environmental management should be based on ecology and the laws it reveals of the interaction of various natural systems. Rational environmental management means the study of natural resources, their careful exploitation, protection and reproduction, taking into account not only the present, but also the future interests of the development of the national economy and the preservation of human health. Unfortunately, the current state of environmental management in most cases can be characterized as irrational, leading to depletion (even extinction) of natural resources, even renewable ones; environmental pollution.
2. Natural resources and their classification.
Natural resources are those means of subsistence of people that are not created by their labor, but are found in nature. These include water, soils, plants, animals, minerals, which are used directly or in processed form. Natural resources provide people with food, clothing, shelter, fuel, energy, and raw materials for industry.
The most common is natural classification on the main components of the environment. In accordance with it, all natural resources are divided into:
a) Mineral;
b) Land;
c) Water;
d) Forest;
d) Fauna.
Mineral resources. These include metal and non-metal ores, oil, gas, coal, and groundwater. Minerals can only be used once, after which they run out. The rate of their formation is immeasurably slower than the rate of production. Therefore, in the future, humanity will need to search for means and methods for more efficient use of non-renewable resources, including methods for processing secondary raw materials.
How great the role of mineral resources is in human life is evidenced by the names of certain periods of material culture - Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age.
Currently, almost all elements of D.I. Mendeleev’s periodic table are used. The degree of application and processing of numerous types of mineral raw materials determines the progress and well-being of society. The main raw materials are metals, water, mineral and organic raw materials.
Some minerals are as important to human life as air and water. For example, table salt has been the object of trade exchange for many centuries. It is an essential industrial raw material and is available in abundance. There are also large reserves of non-metallic minerals: clay, lime, sand and gravel, phosphorites, potassium salt, mica.
The situation is different with mineral fuels and metals. The reserves of many of them are quite limited, so they must be protected as exhaustible resources.
Land resources. Soil is the basis of all material wealth, the main wealth on which human existence depends. It is a natural-historical bioinert body that arose as a result of the influence of living and dead organisms, the atmosphere and natural waters on the surface of rocks in conditions of different climates and topography and in conditions of earth gravity.
From the total surface area globe, equal to 510 million km2, the share of land accounts for 149 million km2 (29.2%). The planet's land fund consists of various categories of land: glaciers, polar and high-mountain deserts, tundras and forest-tundras, swamps, agricultural areas, arid deserts, rocky soils and coastal sands, industrial and urban lands, pastures and meadows.
Water resources- the amount of groundwater and surface water that can be used for various purposes in the economy (fresh water resources are of particular importance, the main source of which is river water). Water is the basis of life on Earth and its homeland. The hydrosphere is the thinnest shell of the Earth, because water in all its states and in all spheres accounts for less than 0.001 of the mass of the planet. Nature is designed in such a way that water is constantly renewed in a single hydrological cycle and protection water resources should be carried out in the very process of water use by influencing individual parts of the water cycle. Demands for water are increasing from year to year. The main consumers of water are agriculture and industries (ferrous metallurgy, chemistry, petrochemicals and thermal power engineering).
Forest resources. The forest plays a huge role in the conservation of water and land resources, in improving the environment. Forests perform the most important environment-forming functions:
field protection;
soil protection (anti-erosion);
climate-forming, etc.
In addition, forests also play a cosmic role, participating in the process of photosynthesis, i.e. transformation of inert matter into organic matter, and largely determining biogeochemical cycles.
If all the Earth's plants (terrestrial and aquatic) create 100 billion tons of phytomass per year (in an absolutely dry state), then land plants account for 64 billion tons, of which forests account for 38 billion tons (60%). It is also very important that the forests on long time fix organic matter in wood.
The total wood supply in the world is 358 billion m3, of which our country accounts for 80 billion m3. Every year, large quantities of wood are consumed throughout the world, used as fuel, building materials and raw materials in the pulp and paper industry.
Animal world. There are approximately 1.5 million species of living organisms on Earth, of which 1 million are animals. However, the ratio of animal and plant biomass is the opposite: animal biomass is only about 1% of the total biomass of living organisms in the biosphere.
The relationship between man and the animal world is complex and diverse. Animals serve as a source of food, fur, and some raw materials, and at the same time can be carriers of pathogens or dangerous agricultural pests, for example, during outbreaks of mass reproduction or insect invasions. All animals exist in the form of populations in certain habitats.
The continuously increasing level of human impact on natural systems (hydraulic construction, urbanization, deforestation, plowing of virgin steppes, chemicalization of agriculture) contributes to a decrease in the number or extinction of a number of animal species. Over the past 370 years, according to some data, 130 species of birds and mammals have disappeared, and the Red Book now includes dozens of endangered animal species, the populations of which amount to literally dozens of individuals. Some species (for example, bison) exist only in protected areas in the form
semi-domestic herds. Some species have disappeared as a result of direct persecution and overfishing. In a number of cases, humans destroyed en masse some animals that threatened human life or agriculture.
Animal resources also include domestic animals (meat and dairy animals, fur animals, pack animals, ornamental animals) and wild species bred in fur farms for fur.
In order to preserve animals, they create nature reserves and sanctuaries, limit production and develop measures for the reproduction of useful and valuable species.
Ecological classification of natural resources based on the principles of exhaustibility and renewability. In accordance with it, natural resources are divided into:
inexhaustible, the use of which does not lead to visible depletion of their reserves ( solar energy, water and wind energy, earthly heat);
Rational environmental management as the main one principle ecology
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exhaustible non-renewable, the continuous use of which can lead to a decrease to a level at which further exploitation becomes impossible or economically infeasible. At the same time, they are not capable of self-healing within a time frame commensurate with the period of consumption (mineral raw materials);
Legal consequences. IN principle coincides with this definition... of justice, in the ratio his with constitutional concept"administrative proceedings" and... the natural environment and environmental management, in the field of industry, construction...
Concept of environmental management
In fact, all human activities, all of his livelihoods are based on the direct or indirect exploitation of natural resources.
In the middle of the current century, the need for science began to be clearly felt, which would deal with general theoretical problems of managing nature, and practically develop a far-sighted strategy and tactics for resolving the now aggravated contradictions between man and the biosphere. The proposal to create such a science was expressed somewhat earlier by a zoologist of the Voronezh Nature Reserve, now Professor Yu.N. Kurazhskovsky at a meeting of the Moscow Society of Naturalists. In 1969, in the book “Fundamentals of Environmental Management,” this scientist gave the first definition in the domestic scientific literature: “The tasks of environmental management as a science come down to the development of general principles for the implementation of any activity related either to the direct use of nature and its resources, or to its changing influences. The ultimate goal of this development is to provide a unified approach to nature as the universal basis of work."
Society turned out to be ready to accept this proposal. Nature management in the USSR developed rapidly, many printed works appeared, incl. monographic nature (Anuchin, 1978; Gensiruk, 1979; Poyarkov, 1978, etc.). Summarizing those available by the end of the 80s. works, N.F. Reimers in the dictionary-reference book “Nature Management” gave six definitions of this science, three of which are listed below:
· The totality of all forms of exploitation of natural resource potential and measures for its conservation;
· Use of natural resources in the process of social production to meet the material and cultural needs of society;
· A complex scientific discipline that studies the general principles of rational (for a given historical moment) use of natural resources by human society.
N.F. Reimers (1992) classified environmental management as a system of environmental sciences, recognizing at the same time its close connection with economics, geography, other fundamental and a number of branch sciences.
The object of environmental management as a science is the complex of relationships between natural resources, the natural living conditions of society and its socio-economic development. The subject of environmental management can be considered the optimization of these relationships, the desire to preserve and reproduce the living environment.
Having these excellent definitions, we, however, did not clearly understand the sectoral boundaries of environmental management and the belonging of certain economic sectors to it. The compilers of the "Ecological encyclopedic dictionary"(1999), taking as a basis the definitions given by N.F. Reimers (1990), supplemented them with the following words:
“The process of environmental management is mainly the receipt and extraction of natural resources in the form of raw materials and their processing into final products...”
Leaving the “receipt of final products” to the share of the relevant industries industrial production, we get a new definition. It does not contradict the classical definitions of Yu.N. Kurazhskovsky and N.F. Reimers, but only continues them, specifies them, outlines industry contours, boundaries of application:
Nature management is human activity for the study, exploration, extraction, evaluation, primary processing (enrichment) of natural resources in the form of raw materials for the purpose of their direct consumption or provision of them production sector, carried out taking into account the main ecological, economic, social and environmental criteria and restrictions officially accepted by society.” The emphasis in this definition should be on the word “extraction”.
The above definition echoes V.I. Danilov-Danilyan’s (2001) identification of the so-called. “layers of production”; environmental management corresponds to the first and partially to the second “layers”.
It is proposed to include agriculture and forestry (perhaps without some final stages associated with deep processing of extracted, mined raw materials), fishing and hunting, recreation, and nature reserves.
Sphere of industrial environmental management: geological exploration, energy, oil and gas industry, coal mining and shale industry, wood processing and pulp and paper industry, production of building materials from primary natural raw materials, etc.
Without environmental management, and this is understandable, the existence of humanity is impossible. But one thing must be observed mandatory condition: it must be rational. All the troubles that humanity has suffered and is suffering are not due to the management of nature in general, but from the irrational use of nature.
Irrational environmental management is a system of activities that does not ensure the preservation of natural resource potential...
Rational environmental management is a system of activities designed to ensure the economical exploitation of natural resources and conditions and the most effective mode of their reproduction, taking into account the long-term interests of a developing economy and preserving people's health... Highly efficient management that does not lead to sudden changes in natural resource potential... and not leading to profound changes in the human environment.
The continuous growth of the Earth's population contributes to the intensive reduction of people's living space. If in 9 thousand years BC there was an average of 15 square meters per person. km, then now only about O.04 sq. km, including deserts and tundra. Humanity has lost at least 2 billion hectares of productive land, which is about 15% of the entire land surface (excluding Antarctica). In the emerging anthroposphere - the totality of regions of the Earth inhabited and developed by man - more than 6 billion people live and work, concentrated in thousands of cities, tens of thousands of other settlements with a huge concentration of buildings, equipment and transport. Just 30 years ago, about 4 billion hectares of land were cultivated and intensively used in the ecosphere, on which 2.5 billion heads of livestock were grazed and 13 million tractors worked. More than 3 billion tons of plant mass were consumed annually, and more than 4 billion tons of coal, oil, iron ore, billions of tons of various non-metallic minerals.
From the beginning to the end of the 20th century, gross output in the world increased from 60 to 2000 billion dollars, the capacity of the world economy - from 1 to 10 TV tons. Consumption of clean water during the same time increased from 360 to 4000 cubic meters. km, consumption of net primary biota production (in %%) from 1 to 40. The area of green spaces on the Earth decreased by 57.49 million square meters. km, the area of deserts, on the contrary, increased by 156 million hectares. The area disturbed by economic activities on land was 60% compared to 20% at the beginning of the century. There are only 94 million square meters left on the planet. km of territories with undisturbed ecosystems, but if you subtract areas covered with glaciers, bare lands and rocks, then this figure will decrease to 52 million sq. km. With such a scale of activity and imperfect technologies, environmental management should and can only be rational and scientifically based. The ever-deepening gap between the theory and practice of environmental management in a number of countries is a colossal socio-economic and environmental tragedy. We know “what is possible and how it is possible,” but under the influence of thousands of objective and subjective reasons we continue to make fatal mistakes.
The problem is not only technological and resource-based, but also philosophical and ideological in nature. Since the time of V.I. Vernadsky, Leroy, Teilhard de Chardin, who substantiated the need to transform the biosphere into the noosphere, i.e. into the sphere of reason, requiring completely new principles of interaction between man and nature, many scientists and thinkers tried to reveal and deepen new aspects of the problem.
The outstanding French scientist Jean Dorst (1968), rejecting the dominance of technical civilization, wrote that man, “carelessly playing the sorcerer’s apprentice, brought to life processes that he can no longer always control.” He emphasized that “despite general technical progress and “mechanization”, ... man is closely dependent on renewable natural resources and, above all, on the primary productivity of photosynthesis, which represents the original beginning.” This axiom should always be in the memory of people who are in one way or another connected with the protection and operation of biological resources biosphere.
Nowadays, many outstanding scientists pay close attention to the philosophical and environmental aspects of the problem. In particular, Academician N.N. Moiseev in most interesting work“Modern Anthropogenesis and Civilizational Rifts” wrote: “Let us now recall a statement that is trivial from an ecological point of view: no living species, having become a monopolist, is able to avoid an ecological crisis, which can have only two outcomes: either the species will begin to degrade, or it, properly by changing the standards of their behavior and relationships with nature, they will form a new ecological niche. And since humanity has long ago crossed all such boundaries and is doomed to monopolism, it follows from the above that it will inevitably be drawn into an environmental crisis on a global scale. And in order to prevent its degradation, humanity will have to painfully search for a new ecological niche.
Nature management- activities of human society aimed at satisfying their needs through the use of natural resources. There are rational and irrational use of natural resources.
Irrational environmental management is a system of environmental management in which the most readily available natural resources are used in huge quantities and usually not fully, which leads to their rapid depletion.
In this case, a huge amount of waste is produced and the environment is subjected to great pollution. Irrational use of natural resources is inherent in an extensive type of economy, an economy that develops through more and more new construction, the development of virgin lands, the use of natural resources, and an increase in the number of employees in enterprises.
Extensive farming can initially bring good results even at a relatively low scientific and technical level of industrial production, but it soon leads to the depletion of natural and labor resources in the country. One of the countless examples of irrational environmental management includes slash-and-burn agriculture, which is widespread even in our time in Southeast Asia. Land burning ultimately leads to the destruction of wood, air pollution, uncontrollable fires, etc.
Most often, irrational environmental management becomes a consequence of departmental interests and the interests of modern transnational corporations that locate hazardous production facilities in developing countries.
Rational environmental management is a system of environmental management in which extracted natural resources are fully used (and accordingly the amount of consumed resources is reduced), renewable natural resources are restored, production waste is reused and fully used ( waste-free production), which makes it possible to significantly reduce environmental pollution. Rational use of natural resources is inherent in the intensive type of economy, which follows the path of development based on scientific and technological progress and optimal organization of labor with high performance labor. An example of rational environmental management is waste-free production or a waste-free production cycle, in which waste is used to the fullest extent, resulting in a reduction in the consumption of raw materials.
Mineral resources- such resources are considered to be minerals extracted from the subsoil. Also, minerals mean natural minerals earth's crust, which, given the established level of technology development, can be extracted and used in production with a positive economic effect natural form or pre-processed. Volumes of mineral resource use in modern world are constantly growing. If, for example, in the Middle Ages only 18 chemical elements were extracted from the earth’s crust, now this number has increased to more than 80 elements. Since 1950, world mining production has tripled. Every year, more than 100 billion tons of mineral raw materials and fuel are extracted from the bowels of the planet. Modern national economy uses approximately 200 types of various mineral raw materials. It should be taken into account that almost all of them belong to the category of non-renewable, and also, the reserves of their individual types are far from identical. For example, the total geological reserves of coal in the world are approximately 14.8 trillion tons, and oil reserves are 400 billion tons. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the constantly growing needs of mankind.
Land resources- the earth's surface suitable for human habitation, as well as for construction and any other types of economic activity. In addition to the size of the territory, land resources are characterized by their quality: relief, soil cover and a complex of other natural conditions. The wealth of mankind in land resources is determined primarily by the vast global land fund, which, according to various estimates, ranges from 13.1 to 14.9 billion hectares. One of the main characteristics of land resources is the structure of the land fund, i.e. the ratio of areas occupied by forests, agricultural crops, pastures, settlements, roads, industrial enterprises, etc. The land fund also includes those inconvenient for farming lands such as deserts, highlands, etc.
In the structure of the world land fund, cultivable lands occupy only 11%, with meadows and pastures from 23 to 25%, forests and shrubs - 31%, and settlements only 2%. Almost the entire remaining territory consists of unproductive and unproductive lands.
These include mountains, deserts, glaciers, swamps, etc. But despite their small number, cultivated lands provide humanity with 88% of the necessary food products.
The main tracts of arable land on the planet are located in the Northern Hemisphere, namely: in Western and Eastern Europe, in Southern Siberia, in Southern, Eastern, Southeast Asia and on the plains of the USA and Canada. These lands are located mainly in forest, forest-steppe and steppe zones of the world. Pasture lands are also very important for human society and provide about 10% of the food consumed by people. Territories occupied by forests are of great importance as a source of valuable wood, as the “lungs” of our planet, producing oxygen necessary for human life. Forest areas create forest resources.
Land water resources- rivers, lakes, groundwater. There are several areas for using water resources. The most important of these is meeting humanity's needs for fresh water. River waters are widely used for this purpose.
According to some estimates, approximately 47 thousand km3 pass through the rivers annually, according to others, only 40 thousand km3. This is not so much, considering that less than 50% of this amount can actually be used. Humanity's need for fresh water is constantly increasing. In 1980 it was 3.5 thousand km3 per year, and by 2000 it should increase to 5 thousand km3 per year.
Almost 65% of all river water It is consumed by agriculture, where its irreversible consumption is very high, especially for irrigation.
Such an increase in consumption with unchanged river runoff resources can lead to a shortage fresh water.
Moreover, many countries have long experienced such a shortage.
To solve the problem of water supply in the world, various ways are used. The main one is saving water, reducing its losses through the introduction of more modern methods and technology. Important role The construction of reservoirs plays a role in this. Currently, more than 30 thousand reservoirs have been built in the world, the total volume of which is approximately 6.5 thousand km3.
This is 3.5 times greater than the one-time volume of water in all rivers of the globe. Taken together, the reservoirs cover an area of 400 thousand km2, which is 10 times more area Sea of Azov.
To countries with the most a large number Large reservoirs include the USA (reservoirs on the Missouri and Colorado rivers) and Russia (Volga and Yenisei cascades of reservoirs).
Other measures to solve the water problem include: desalination of sea water, common in the countries of the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean, Turkmenistan, the southern USA, Japan, and the Caribbean islands; redistribution of river flow in moisture-abundant areas (USA, Canada, Australia, India, etc.).
The latter requires a particularly careful approach, since on a large scale it can cause much more environmental damage than economic benefit. In many countries around the world, water is transported in sea tankers and transmitted through long-distance water pipelines. Today, even ideas for transporting Antarctic icebergs to countries in the hot zone are being considered. Rivers are also widely used around the world for energy. There are three categories of hydropower potential. The theoretical (gross) hydro potential, which is usually estimated at 30-50 trillion kW/h of possible electricity generation per year, technical potential is approximately 20 trillion kW/h per year. In the modern world, groundwater is also a source of fresh water, which is used for medicinal purposes (mineral waters) and for heating (thermal springs).
Forest resources- one of the most important types of biosphere resources. Forest resources include wood, cork, resin, mushrooms, berries, nuts, medicinal plants, hunting and commercial resources, etc., as well as the beneficial properties of the forest: climate-regulating, water-protective, anti-erosion, health-improving, etc.
Forest resources are classified as renewable resources and are considered according to two main criteria: the size of the forest area and standing timber reserves. Thus, forests occupy 4.1 billion hectares or about 27% of the Earth’s land area, and the world’s wood reserves amount to about 350 billion m3, which, due to constant growth, increase annually by 5.5 billion m3.
However, forests are often cut down for arable land, plantations, and construction. In addition, wood is quite widely used for firewood and wood-processing products. The result is deforestation, which has reached alarming proportions today.
The world's forest area decreases annually by at least 25 million hectares, and global timber harvest in 2000 already reached 5 billion m3. This means that its annual growth rate is fully utilized. Largest area forests have been preserved in Eurasia. This is about 40% of all the world's forests and almost 42% of the total timber supply, including 2/3 of the volume of the most valuable wood species.
Australia has the least forest cover. Since the sizes of the continents are not the same, their forest cover, the ratio of the forested area to the total area of the continent, is taken into account. According to this indicator, South America ranks first in the world.
In the economic assessment of forest resources, such a characteristic as wood reserves is of primary importance. The countries of Asia, South and North America are leading in this regard.
Leading positions in this area are occupied by countries such as Russia, Canada, the USA, and Brazil. The following countries are characterized by a virtual absence of forests: Libya, Bahrain, Qatar, etc.
Resources of the World Ocean- the main resources of the World Ocean are biological, energy, mineral and energy.
Biological resources of the World Ocean- animals and plants, energy generated today by the country's hydroelectric power stations. The biomass of the World Ocean is 140 billion tons. Water
The world's oceans have huge reserves of deuterium, its resources are diverse.
One of critical resources are animals (fish, mollusks, cetaceans) actively swimming in the water column and mineral resources. The biological and mineral resources of the world's oceans are exhaustible. Their uncontrolled use has endangered the existence of marine mammals and led to a strong reduction in the number of fish, bottom plants and animals. Mainly human production involves fish, which accounts for 85% of the marine biomass used, and bivalves (scallops, oysters, mussels). Algae are finding increasing use. Medicines, starch are obtained from algae, paper and fabrics are made. Algae is an excellent feed for livestock and a good fertilizer. There are more or less productive areas in the ocean. The most productive ones include the Norwegian, Bering, Okhotsk and Japanese seas. The resources of the world's oceans are still underutilized. Ocean waters are rapidly becoming polluted. A huge amount of “dirt” is carried into the ocean from land by rivers and wastewater. More than 30% of the ocean surface is covered with an oil film, destructive for all living things.
The destruction of plankton, i.e. protozoa and crustaceans passively floating in water, led to a reduction in fish production. Radioactive products enter the World Ocean, which also pollute its waters.
Mineral resources of the World Ocean- resources that are in the water itself, and those that are extracted from its bottom. The most valuable resource is the water itself, which contains 75 chemical elements. On an industrial scale, sodium, chlorine, magnesium and bromine are already extracted from it. But when these elements are extracted, some potassium and calcium compounds are obtained as by-products.
Desalination of seawater is currently becoming increasingly important. The bottom of the world's oceans is also rich mineral resources. They include ore deposits below the seabed surface.
Energy resources - to modern man An extremely large amount of energy is needed: for heating housing, for operating equipment and transport, and lighting. Energy consumption has increased 100-fold over the last century. It is still growing so quickly that very soon there may not be enough natural resources to satisfy all human needs. Energy sources are very diverse. These are coal, oil, peat, gas, falling water, wind, atomic energy. All named types of energy, excluding atomic energy, are solar energy. The water cycle in nature occurs thanks to solar warmth; Air also moves thanks to the Sun.
Coal, gas and oil is a natural fuel formed from the fossil remains of animals and plants that have accumulated underground and turned into combustible substances over millions of years. It is the most important source of energy, providing about 75% of all our electricity needs. The largest gas field is considered Urengoy in Russia.
It produces up to 200,000 million m3 of gas per year. Largest deposit oil - Hawar - located in Saudi Arabia, it occupies 8000 km2. Peat is a less valuable fuel and is used less in industry than gas and oil. It is formed continuously. Every autumn, the plants in the swamp die, and layers of peat form in their place.
In addition to fuel, today hundreds of various products. Even sitting in a room, you can count dozens of them: plastic parts of a TV set, a stereo system, nylon shirts, a foam mattress, nylon stockings, plastic bags, washing powder, medications (aspirin, streptocide, pyramidon, etc.).
Every year the world's energy resources are decreasing, as a result of which energy processing and conservation are becoming more and more important for humanity. It is necessary that as much plastic, glass, paper, and metal as possible be recycled. It is desirable to reduce energy consumption in industrial and domestic sectors as much as possible.
You can save oil and gas by using new types of energy, such as nuclear energy, solar energy, and wind energy.
Man has learned to use the atom for peaceful purposes. IN atomic bomb, a dangerous weapon, when the nucleus fissions, energy is released in a split second. In a power plant, control rods in the reactor delay the process while allowing energy to be released gradually. Over the course of several months, you can use this energy by converting it into electricity. The fuel elements for a nuclear reactor are uranium dioxide pellets, which are placed in thin tubes separated by partitions. There are different types reactors. Some of them were previously used in weapons. For example, the first N-reactors were created for plutonium bombs. Magnox reactors produce plutonium and electricity. The most commonly used reactors are those previously used on nuclear submarines. The most advanced ones at present are gas-cooled reactors.
The Fukushima nuclear power plant in Japan is considered the largest. It operates 10 separate reactors, which together produce 8,814 megawatts. The most big problem- disposal of nuclear waste. Scientists have calculated that it will take 80,000 years for the radioactivity of the waste already accumulated in the modern world to disappear.
The safest in this regard are renewable types of energy. Most The energy produced on the planet is provided by fossil fuels, and they are coming to an end. The use of nuclear energy also has a number of problems. As a result, people need renewable energy sources such as sunlight, wind, heat from the Earth’s core, and waves. Currently, they generate about 5% of all energy on the planet, but it is possible that this figure will increase in the future. The main source of a significant part of the energy on Earth is the Sun. It is this that helps plants grow, causing water to evaporate, forming clouds that fall to the ground as rain, replenishing rivers. The sun controls both the wind and the waves. Every year the sun provides a volume of heat equal to the energy that can be obtained from 60 bln tons of oil. Even a hundredth part of it with 5% efficiency will provide any country in the world with electricity.
But there is a problem. Oil and other fossil fuels are very easy to use because they contain energy that has been stored between layers of rock under pressure for millions of years. But sunlight can only be converted into electricity using solar cells. It is not easy to do this effectively because it is dispersed over vast areas. Electricity is thus difficult to collect in large quantities.
The same problems arise when trying to “tame” the wind. Like energy sunlight, it is difficult to use in industrial quantities. But it is suitable for local use. Already in ancient times people built windmills. Travelers went “to distant lands” under sail on caravels. Exactly on sailing ships The first circumnavigation of the world was completed. Already in ancient Egypt primitive wind engines were built to grind grain and irrigate fields. In our country there are now several thousand wind turbines, and there are also wind power plants. But, just like the energy of sunlight, only a small fraction of wind energy is used so far. Although this energy is very great. Scientists believe that every year the winds carry almost 3 times more energy over the territory of Russia than that contained in coal, oil, peat, and rivers of the country.
It is of great importance that wind power plants can be built in any corner of our country. Wind engines are widely used at polar stations located on the islands of the Arctic Ocean. Although there are very severe frosts here in winter, down to -50 °C, wind turbines function flawlessly. They are the ones who always provide polar explorers with light and warmth, and provide current to their radio receivers and radio transmitters.
Environmental pollution- undesirable changes in its properties as a result of anthropogenic input of various substances and compounds. Environmental pollution leads to harmful effects on the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
The main source of such pollution is the return into nature of a huge mass of waste that is generated in the process of production and consumption of human society.
According to scientists, already in 1970 they amounted to 40 million tons, and by the end of the 20th century. their volume has reached 100 billion tons. Release into the environment is especially dangerous chemicals, synthesized by man and previously not existing in nature.
On the rational (for the corresponding historical moment) use of natural resources by society is a complex discipline that includes elements of natural, social and technical sciences.
Environmental management is divided into rational and irrational.
With rational use of natural resources, the needs for material goods are met as completely as possible while maintaining the ecological balance and the possibility of restoring natural resource potential. Finding such an optimum of economic activity for a specific territory or object is an important applied task of environmental science. Achieving this optimum is called “sustainable development”.
With irrational environmental management, environmental degradation of the territory and irreversible depletion of natural resource potential occurs.
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Video lesson "Fundamentals of rational environmental management"
Environmental management in post-Soviet Russia
Nature management. Lecture 1. Ecology and economics
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Environmental management as an academic discipline
Great value in the formation of new thinking in relation to nature has the study of the general professional educational discipline “Nature Management”, which considers one of the pressing aspects of the problem of post-industrial development of society - an objective assessment of the state and optimization of the use of natural resources and environmental conditions, their protection and reproduction.
Goals and objectives of the discipline
Man, armed with technology and striving for maximum consumption, has become the most dangerous living creature on planet Earth. He not only destroys other species of animals and plants, but also invents increasingly destructive types of weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear, bacteriological, chemical, tectonic, climate, etc.
The need to change the behavior of mankind leads to the emergence of a new “ecological” style of thinking and the greening of the entire system of knowledge. Ecology is being introduced not only into natural science or technical disciplines, but also into the humanities. The greening of the economy has led to the formation of several new areas of research corresponding to different stages of the environmental management process.
Yes, there is economics of natural resources, studying problems effective use natural resources in conditions various types economies and various natural and climatic zones of the Earth. This field studies the economics of the first stage of the environmental management process - the stage of extraction and processing of natural resources.
Second area - economics of pollution(waste disposal economics), explores the processes of using such special natural resource, as the assimilative (absorbing) potential of nature. It is important what volume of pollution causes minimal damage to nature and with the help of what economic mechanisms its absorption potential can be optimally used. Research in the field of pollution economics deals with the second stage of environmental management - the removal of industrial waste.
The third area of study is Economics of Restoration and Conservation- studies the economic features of the third stage of environmental management, associated with the restoration and protection of natural resources.
Paradigms of “Environmental Economics”
There are three main paradigms of “environmental economics”.
First Paradigm based on the idea that the minimum use of natural resources is the best. According to the principle of “minimizing impact”, rights to use resources should be in the hands of local population groups, that is, people living in small settlements and interested in living in harmony with nature.
Second Paradigm is based on the idea of optimal use of natural resources. Optimality refers to the extraction from nature of such a volume of resources that allows each member of a growing society to steadily increase their level of well-being (a small but equal increase in annual consumption for society).
Third Paradigm is based on the principle of maximizing the use of natural resources to maximize the welfare of the population. According to this paradigm, all members of society strive to maximize the use of natural resources.
Nature management can be carried out in various forms, in various ways, which predetermines differentiation legal regulation environmental management relations.
Thus, the classification of environmental management by objects of use is of primary importance.
On this basis, land use (use of lands), subsoil use (use of subsoil), water use (use of water bodies), forest use (use of forests), use of wildlife, use of natural reserves and natural recreational resources, use of air space are distinguished. The resource-based structure of environmental management serves as the basis for differentiation of legal regulation of environmental management relations and their legislative consolidation. In the branches of environmental law, relevant legal institutions are distinguished, the norms of which are enshrined in special sections, chapters of industry codes and other major federal laws that complement their regulatory legal acts.
Depending on the method of influencing natural resources, general and special environmental management are distinguished.
General use of natural resources - use of a natural resource without application technical means, devices, in ways that do not significantly affect its condition. It is of a public nature and its implementation does not require a license or a decision of an authorized body to provide a natural resource for use. However, general use of natural resources must be carried out in compliance with environmental protection rules and other restrictions established in legislation. Thus, the general use of natural resources is the stay of citizens in forests. By virtue of Art. 11 of the RF LC, citizens have the right to freely and freely stay in forests and, for their own needs, to harvest and collect wild berries, mushrooms, nuts and other food forest resources, as well as non-timber forest resources. Citizens are required to follow the rules fire safety in forests, rules of reforestation and forest care. It is prohibited for citizens to collect and stockpile wild plants and mushrooms listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation and the Red Books of the Russian Federation, as well as narcotic plants and natural narcotic raw materials. In the interests of ensuring fire and sanitary safety in forests and safety during work, the stay of citizens may be limited.
As enshrined in Art. 6 of the Water Code of the Russian Federation, surface water bodies that are in state or municipal ownership are objects public use, that is, publicly accessible water bodies unless otherwise provided by law. Every citizen has access to public water bodies and use them free of charge for their personal and domestic needs, unless otherwise provided by law.
Terms of use water bodies for personal and household needs are established by local governments. The shoreline along the shoreline of a public water body is intended for public use. The width of the shoreline of public water bodies (except for canals, rivers and streams with a length of at least 10 km) is 20 meters, and for canals, rivers and streams with a length of less than 10 km - 5 meters. Every citizen has the right to use (without the use of mechanical vehicles) the coastal strip of public water bodies for movement and stay near them, including for recreational and sport fishing and mooring of floating craft.
The right to use natural resources can be primary or secondary.
Primary use of natural resources is the use of a natural resource obtained from the owner or authority state power, local government. Secondary natural resource use is the use of a natural resource obtained from the primary natural resource user. The possibility of transferring resources for secondary use is provided for by law, or it is permitted with the consent of the owner, government body, or local government that provided the natural resource for use. Nature use can be temporary (urgent) and permanent (indefinite). Temporary environmental management, in turn, is divided into long-term, usually over 5 years and up to 49 years, and short-term - up to 5 years.
Natural resources can be used for various purposes, which predetermines differentiation in the regulation of their use. Thus, land use is divided into agricultural use, use of lands as a spatial basis for the location of industrial enterprises, transport, communication lines, power transmission, for the needs of astronautics and national defense, and for other non-agricultural purposes.
The Law of the Russian Federation “On Subsoil” identifies the following types subsoil use:
· regional geological study, including regional geological and geodetic work, geological surveying, geotechnical surveys, scientific research, paleontological and other work aimed at general geological study of the subsoil, geological work on predicting earthquakes and studying volcanic activity, creating and maintaining monitoring natural environment, regime control groundwater carried out without significant violation of the integrity of the subsoil;
· geological study, including searches and assessment of mineral deposits;
· exploration and production of mineral resources, including the use of waste from mining and related processing industries;
· construction and operation of underground structures not related to mining;
· formation of specially protected geological objects that have scientific, cultural, aesthetic, sanitary, health and other significance (scientific and educational sites, geological reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, natural monuments, caves and other underground cavities);
· collection of mineralogical, paleontological and other geological collection materials.
Water bodies, as enshrined in Art. 37 of the Water Code of the Russian Federation, may be provided for the following purposes: drinking and domestic water supply, wastewater discharge and (or) drainage water, electric energy production, water and air transport, wood rafting and other purposes.
Forests can be provided for the harvesting of timber, resin, non-timber forest resources, harvesting of food forest resources and collection medicinal plants, hunting management and hunting; maintaining forestry, carrying out research and educational recreational activities and for other purposes set forth in Art. 25 LC RF.
The use of wildlife is carried out in the following forms: hunting, fishing; harvesting animals not classified as objects of hunting and fishing, using or extracting useful properties of the vital activity of objects of the animal world, obtaining products of their vital activity; study, research and other use of the animal world for scientific, cultural, educational, educational, recreational, aesthetic purposes without removing them from their habitat.
In Art. 16 of the Federal Law “On Fisheries and Conservation of Aquatic Biological Resources” stipulates the following types of fishing: industrial, including coastal; for research and control purposes; for educational, cultural and educational purposes; for the purposes of fishing, reproduction and acclimatization of aquatic biological resources; amateur and sports, in order to ensure maintenance traditional image life and implementation of traditional economic activities of indigenous peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East.
Specially protected natural areas, which are in the use of state reserves, national parks and other environmental institutions, can be used for the purpose of protecting and reproducing natural objects located in these territories, maintaining their diversity, organizing and conducting scientific research, implementation environmental monitoring, environmental education; training of scientific personnel and specialists in the field of environmental protection; organization of recreation and regulated tourism.
Natural healing resources, health-improving areas and resorts are used for the treatment and prevention of diseases, for recreational purposes, and mineral waters are used for industrial bottling (Article 10 of the federal law “On natural healing resources, health-improving places and resorts”).
Airspace use Russian Federation is carried out to move various material objects (aircraft, missiles and other objects) in it, as well as other activities (construction of high-rise structures, activities during which the emission of electronic and other radiation occurs, the release of substances into the atmosphere that impair visibility, carrying out blasting operations etc.), which may pose a threat to air traffic safety (Article 22 of the Air Code of the Russian Federation).
It is allowed to use atmospheric air for the emission of harmful (pollutant) substances and harmful physical effects in the manner and under the conditions established by the federal law “On the Protection of Atmospheric Air”.
Nature management can be carried out with the removal of natural resources from the natural environment, or without it.
Natural resources may be provided for use by one or several persons.
An environmental management object can be one type of natural resource, or several natural resources.
Natural resources may be provided for use for one or more types of environmental management (integrated environmental management).
