Spiritual crisis: causes, dynamics, consequences. The crisis of spiritual values as a global problem of our time
Spiritual culture represents only a certain aspect, a “slice” of spiritual life; in a certain sense, it can be considered the core of the spiritual life of society. Spiritual culture has a complex structure, including scientific, philosophical, worldview, legal, moral, and artistic culture. Religion occupies a special place in the system of spiritual culture.
By preserving and transmitting a wide variety of information about the life activities of past generations, culture is both a result and a means of development of the individual and society.
Spiritual culture occupies a special place among cultural phenomena. It grows on the basis of social existence, permeates all its spheres and has an active influence on almost all life activities of man and society. As a reflection of social existence, it bears the imprint characteristic features era and a certain socio-economic formation, interests and needs of large social communities and social strata. Thus, spiritual culture can be considered in this capacity as something single, inherent in a nation, state, or regional group of states.
SPIRITUALITY– a specific human quality that characterizes the motivation and meaning of an individual’s behavior. Spirituality is considered as a certain position of value consciousness - moral, political, religious, aesthetic. This position plays a leading role in the sphere of moral relations. Spirituality, as well as “spirit”, “spiritual”, are the main categories of philosophical and theological thought, therefore in Christian ethics it is associated with inner purity and peace, with modesty and obedience. However, spirituality should be considered more broadly: in social terms, as a product and fundamental basis of culture, a manifestation of the “human in man.” Spirituality is characterized by selflessness, freedom, and emotionality.
In the very in a general sense, a crisis can be defined as a set of problematic, intractable, and sometimes hopeless situations. These situations are associated with the aggravation of social contradictions, the disintegration of cultural ties, the emergence of something incomprehensible that disrupts the usual course of things and, as a rule, cause a state of confusion and confusion, a feeling of helplessness, disbelief in own strength, often turning into panic and hysteria or, conversely, into apathy and reluctance to do anything. Spiritual crisis, unlike sociocultural conflicts, is most often determined not by external, but by internal reasons and contradictions: revaluation of moral values, loss of ideology, degradation of society, breaking traditions, disorientation in the cultural space, change in the usual rhythm of life, etc.
The situation is further aggravated by the fact that by the middle of the last century, society had entered a phase of its development in which a person’s daily life became outwardly quite prosperous: there was no hard work, violence was reduced to a minimum, there were fewer and fewer incurable diseases, the availability of life’s goods increased, Almost everyone has at their disposal the latest achievements of science and technology. Behind the facade of this well-being, a deep spiritual crisis becomes less noticeable and palpable: inexplicable anxiety and confusion, a feeling of dissatisfaction and satiety that does not leave people who seem to be provided with everything they need, loss of the meaning of life, very blurred prospects for the future, a feeling of disunity, worthlessness and uselessness.
IN modern world The concept of globality is widespread. Globality is a term that is increasingly used by philosophers when considering socio-ecological problems on a global scale. Such global problems as drug addiction, the current situation of society living under the dictates of the so-called sexual revolution (the reasons for the modern depravity of Russian youth, in particular, and Western society in general), and other problems of the loss of the moral foundation of the spiritual world of man.
Society, having lost its spiritual core, the main criterion of morality, essentially loses an integral system of moral principles of its inner world. The resulting emptiness oppresses a person, he feels that something is lost, he fully feels the emerging emptiness. For example, using various narcotic substances, a person feels how the emptiness inside him shrinks and becomes insignificant. Following the principles of sexual emancipation, at the same time acquiring pseudo-ethical values, a person begins to feel that he has found himself, his place in society. But by delighting the soul with bodily delights, a person thereby destroys his own spiritual world.
We can say that there is a crisis modern society a consequence of the destruction of outdated spiritual values developed during the Renaissance. In order for society to gain its moral and ethical principles, with the help of which one can find its place in this world without destroying itself, a change in previous traditions is required. Speaking about the spiritual values of the Renaissance, it is worth noting that their existence for more than six centuries determined the spirituality of European society and had a significant impact on the materialization of ideas. Anthropocentrism, as the leading idea of the Renaissance, made it possible to develop many teachings about man and society. Placing man at the forefront as the highest value, the system of his spiritual world was subordinated to this idea. Despite the fact that many virtues developed in the Middle Ages were preserved (love for everyone, work, etc.), they were all directed towards man as the most important being. Virtues such as kindness and humility fade into the background. It becomes important for a person to acquire the comfort of life through the accumulation of material wealth, which led humanity to the age of industry.
In the modern world, where most countries are industrial, the values of the Renaissance have exhausted themselves. Humanity, satisfying its material needs, did not pay attention to environment, did not calculate the consequences of its large-scale influences on it. Consumer civilization is focused on obtaining maximum profit when using natural resources. What cannot be sold has not only no price, but also no value. According to consumer ideology, restricting consumption can have a negative impact on economic growth. However, the connection between environmental challenges and consumer orientation is becoming increasingly clear. The modern economic paradigm is based on a liberal value system, main criterion which freedom. Freedom in modern society is the absence of obstacles to the satisfaction of human desires. Nature is seen as a reservoir of resources to satisfy man's endless desires. The result was various environmental problems(problem ozone holes and the greenhouse effect, depletion of natural landscapes, increasing numbers rare species animals and plants, etc.), which show how cruel man has become towards nature, expose the crisis of anthropocentric absolutes. A person, having built a comfortable material sphere and spiritual values for himself, drowns in them. In this regard, there was a need to develop new system spiritual values that could become common to many peoples of the world. Even the Russian scientist Berdyaev, speaking about sustainable noospheric development, developed the idea of acquiring universal spiritual values. They are the ones who are called upon to determine in the future further development humanity.
In modern society, the number of crimes is constantly increasing, violence and hostility are familiar to us. According to the authors, all these phenomena are the result of objectification of a person’s spiritual world, that is, the objectification of his inner being, alienation and loneliness. Therefore, violence, crime, hatred are an expression of the soul. It’s worth thinking about what fills our souls and inner world today modern people. For most it is anger, hatred, fear. The question arises: where should we look for the source of everything negative? According to the authors, the source is located within the objectified society itself. The values that the West has long dictated to us cannot satisfy the standards of all humanity. Today we can conclude that a crisis of values has arrived.
What role do values play in a person's life? What values are true and necessary, primary? The authors tried to answer these questions using the example of Russia as a unique, multi-ethnic, multi-confessional state. Russia also has its own specifics; it has a special geopolitical position, intermediate between Europe and Asia. In our opinion, Russia must finally take its position, independent of either the West or the East. In this case, we are not at all talking about the isolation of the state; we only want to say that Russia should have its own path of development, taking into account all its specific features.
For many centuries, peoples of different faiths have lived on the territory of Russia. It has been noted that certain virtues, values and norms - faith, hope, love, wisdom, courage, justice, abstinence, conciliarity - coincide in many religions. Faith in God, in yourself. Hope for a better future, which has always helped people cope with cruel reality and overcome their despair. Love, expressed in sincere patriotism (love for the Motherland), honor and respect for elders (love for your neighbors). Wisdom that includes the experience of our ancestors. Abstinence, which is one of the most important principles of spiritual self-education, the development of willpower; during Orthodox fasting, it helps a person get closer to God and partially cleanse himself of earthly sins. In Russian culture there has always been a desire for conciliarity, the unity of everyone: man with God and the world around him as God’s creation. Conciliarity also has a social character: the Russian people throughout the history of Rus', Russian Empire to protect his Motherland, his state, he always showed conciliarity: during the Great Troubles of 1598–1613, during the Patriotic War of 1812, during the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945
Let's see what the current situation is in Russia. Many Russian people remain unbelievers: they do not believe in God, goodness, or other people. Many lose love and hope, becoming embittered and cruel, allowing hatred into their hearts and souls. Today in Russian society primacy belongs to Western material values: material wealth, power, money; people go over their heads, achieving their goals, our souls become callous, we forget about spirituality and morality. In our opinion, representatives of the humanities are responsible for the development of a new system of spiritual values. The authors of this work are students of the specialty social anthropology. We believe that a new system of spiritual values should become the basis for Russia's sustainable development. Based on the analysis, it is necessary to identify those common values in each religion and develop a system that is important to introduce into the sphere of education and culture. It is on the spiritual basis that the entire material sphere of society’s life should be built. When each of us realizes that human life is also valuable, when virtue becomes the norm of behavior for every person, when we finally overcome the disunity that is present in society today, then we will be able to live in harmony with the world around us, nature, people. For Russian society today it is necessary to realize the importance of reassessing the values of its development and developing a new system of values.
If in the process of development its spiritual and cultural component is diminished or ignored, then this inevitably leads to the decline of society. In modern times, in order to avoid political, social and interethnic conflicts, an open dialogue between world religions and cultures is necessary. The basis for the development of countries should be spiritual, cultural and religious forces.
The crisis of modern society is a consequence of the narrowing of the meaning of the concept of spirituality, viewing it as something exclusively religious. A person’s need for religiosity is closely associated with feelings of fear of loneliness, fear of one’s own helplessness, weakness, fear of death, which have intensified in the process of society’s transition to a new wave of development.
“It seems irrefutable to me,” Freud writes in “The Discontents of Culture,” that the derivation of religious needs from childhood helplessness and the associated adoration of the father. Moreover, this feeling not only stems from childhood, but is further supported by the fear of the omnipotence of fate. It is difficult to give another example of a need as strong in childhood as the need for paternal protection. Therefore, the role of the “oceanic” feeling is secondary, it could only serve to restore boundless narcissism. We are able to clearly trace the primary sources of religious views - right down to the feeling of childhood helplessness. There may be something else hiding behind it, but for now it’s all shrouded in thick fog.”
IN recent years The general condition of modern Russian society, according to statistics, looks unfavorable:
Russia is considered one of the countries with the highest mortality rates. The mortality rate of men of working age is high;
50% of those who died from all external causes of death - suicide, transport injuries, murder, alcohol poisoning... The number of victims of accidents indicate, if not a massive reluctance to live (psychoanalytic interpretation of such situations), then at least the indifferent attitude of many of our fellow citizens to your own and to others’ lives;
The number of murders per 100 thousand inhabitants in our country is now almost 4 times higher than in the USA (where the situation in this regard is also very unfavorable), and is approximately 10 times higher than their prevalence in most European countries;
In terms of the number of suicides, our country is 3 times ahead of the United States, ranking second in Europe and the CIS not only among the population as a whole, but also among young people under the age of 17 (in this case, after Kazakhstan). The trends towards a decrease in the average age of those who commit suicide, towards committing them in increasingly cruel ways, etc. are alarming;
Every year, 2 million children suffer from parental cruelty, and 50 thousand run away from home;
Every year, 5 thousand women die from beatings inflicted by their husbands;
Violence against wives, elderly parents and children is recorded in every fourth family;
12% of teenagers use drugs;
More than 20% of child pornography distributed around the world is filmed in Russia;
About 1.5 million Russian children school age do not attend school at all, child and adolescent “social ill-being” affects at least 4 million people;
IN modern Russia there are about 40 thousand juvenile prisoners, which is about 3 times more than there were in the USSR in the early 1930s;
According to official data, the number of unemployed in 2008 was 5299 thousand people;
According to the corruption index, over six years (from 2002 to 2008), our country moved from 71st to 147th place in the world, and the total volume of corruption in Russia is estimated by experts at 250-300 billion dollars a year;
Quantitative data, in turn, can be supplemented by well-known everyday examples expressing the state of modern Russian society:
Drugs are sold in schools;
Public speech - including in the media - is illiterate, replete with obscene words and jargon;
Homeless people have become an indispensable feature of train stations and other public places;
The Internet is filled with films that show in detail how students beat their teachers;
Elderly people are being killed by the hundreds in order to take possession of their apartments;
Drunk mothers throw their babies out of windows;
There is (in the 21st century!) such a phenomenon as the slave trade, and in the literal, and not at all in the metaphorical, sense of the word;
Every year, judging by the news, Russia is sliding further into an era of total obscurantism. Perhaps no one will be surprised by the recurrence of religious ceremonies with noticeable frequency, in which the highest authorities take part. officials, arrivals in the country of dubious remains of long-dead people, rags called “belts of the Virgin Mary,” “shrouds,” etc. There are widespread sects that practice, among other things, human sacrifice.
Taken together, the above data builds up into a holistic picture, which indicates the painful state of our society. And all this with unprecedented development of science and technology.
The problem of loneliness is closely related to the problem of spiritual crisis. The concept of a spiritual person reflects, in our opinion, the formation of a modern person in a changing environment of interaction: globalization of communication, loss of identity, a new virtual culture.
Thus, we see that the problem of spiritual and moral crisis is part of the general cultural crisis of modern society, which must be solved comprehensively.
A 25-year-old girl got divorced a week ago after being married for 2 years. Divorce initiated by husband. A woman cannot become pregnant due to infertility. On at the moment Over time, the girl shows a lack of interest in life, a loss of meaning in life (previously she wanted to give birth to two children).
Woman, 34 years old. Two months ago my husband died (accident). I was left with a two-year-old child. While I was married (7 years), I didn’t work anywhere, I was a housewife. I was faced with the need to find a job.
Young man, 26 years old. I recently completed graduate school in the capital, moved to live and work in Novosibirsk, and got a job at a research institute where his knowledge is needed. He was faced with the fact that it was difficult for him to find friends and establish personal relationships in a new place.
What do you think unites these people?
All the characters described have encountered in their lives what is commonly called in society the word “crisis.” There are different types of personal crises: existential, age, psychological, and exit from certain type there is always a crisis.
One way or another, every person in his life encounters this phenomenon more than once. Some people go through their crises quickly and quite painlessly, while others can get stuck in them for a long time and go through them quite hard. How can you understand which of the above-mentioned crises you or your friends are experiencing right now? Why do they arise? How can you get out of a crisis on your own or help your loved ones and acquaintances get out of it?
I hope that after reading this article, you will find answers to your questions related to CRISES, and you will better understand people who find themselves on the “path of searching” for the solutions they need.
So, let's first look at:
- what types of crises exist;
- how they differ from each other and how they are similar;
- why they arise (reasons);
- what happens to a person during a crisis.
And then we’ll touch a little on the topic of spiritual searches and get better acquainted with the specifics and features of existential crises.
The crises are as follows:
Psychological crisis. The phenomenon is temporary and short-lived. Such a crisis is associated with the problem of adaptation. A person turns out to be unprepared for certain situations and cannot find a solution on how to behave or what to do. It arises as a result of a combination of certain circumstances. In order to adapt to the new living conditions that have arisen, a person lacks knowledge or skills, or he is not emotionally and morally ready. Typically, this type of crisis occurs when a stable period in life changes and occurs from time to time in the life of any person (change of job, change of place of residence, changes in personal relationships).
Age crisis. Occurs during the revision of one’s social roles: new status in society, new responsibility, new position in the family or at work. Occurs from time to time, the main periods when it may appear: 21-23 years, 25-26 years, 28 years, 30-32 years, 33-35 years, 40-42 years, 45 years, etc. Usually such a crisis is associated with changes in the environment (living conditions) or human activity (working conditions) or with his transition to another age category (different physiological potential, different attitude in society towards people of this age or towards people with such a physical condition).
This is a time of some change in the coordinate system: what is important and what is no longer important in life, in relationships, in activity; time when a reassessment of goals and resources occurs, are assessed existing opportunities and restrictions for oneself in the environment, taking into account the existing potential of knowledge, skills, connections, resources and taking into account one’s health limitations, etc.
Most often, an age crisis occurs as a result of cognitive dissonance, when what is desired/necessary does not coincide with what is available/possible or available/achieved as in resources ( material resources), and in their states (mental or physiological). This crisis occurs at the end of a certain stage of personal development and during a person’s transition to a new stage in life: a change in values/priorities and personal needs, as a result of a physiological shift in the body or as a result of changes in the social environment (changes in status or role, development of a new situation) . This type of crisis can lead to another type of crisis - an existential one.
Existential crisis. A time when the idea of life changes may be accompanied by a loss of interest in life. Usually characterized by a state of searching for the meaning of life. It can be triggered by an age-related or psychological crisis or manifest itself as a result of the development of self-awareness (a new level of development of consciousness and psyche).
Often occurs in people closer to 40 years of age or as a result of the fact that a person has experienced a strong emotional experience (catastrophe, accident, military action, death of loved ones). Man is looking for an explanation for his existence, the existence of humanity and the world in general. Trying to understand his purpose in this world. The crisis is accompanied by changes in the perception of reality. There is a reassessment of existing values and one’s personal experience. This period of life may be accompanied by a person’s withdrawal from active social life and his withdrawal into religion (the person is looking for a new faith in himself and in other people). Sometimes in society this state is called the “state of spiritual search” / “search for oneself.”
The specifics of any of the above crises depend on the individual characteristics of a person: his temperament and character. There are no similar crises! It goes differently for each person.
The most difficult case I have encountered in my practice.
- Psychological crisis (certain incident in life).
- Age crisis (reassessment of values taking into account changes in physiology).
- Midlife crisis (reassessment of life path).
- Existential crisis (search for a new meaning in life).
And all these crises occurred for one client within a year!
What did you do at the last stage of social adaptation:
- Determined the meaning of life.
- We chose a path taking into account the meaning of life and the available opportunities in society.
- We determined what is important and what is not in order to follow our path. We determined what helps and what hinders it from following. Understood the leading needs.
- Next, the client independently organized his life taking into account the “new guidelines”.
Scientific definition of crises
Psychological crisis- a state in which further functioning of the individual within the framework of the previous model of behavior is impossible (due to changes in environmental conditions), even if it completely suited the person. Crises manifest themselves under stress, as fears, feelings of insecurity, etc.
Age crisis. Reassessment of the value system (new priorities of importance).
18-21 years old. Meeting adulthood is experiences associated with self-determination, finding one’s place in the world of adults.
Crisis of 30 years(27-32 years old). Assessing your own achievements. A person thinks about how much he has realized himself in accordance with the social attitudes of society, for the most part this concerns career achievements.
35-45 years old. Midlife crisis. Reassessment of life experience and chosen path. If necessary, find a new path.
Midlife crisis- long-term emotional state (possible depression), associated with a reassessment of one’s experience in middle age (30-40 years), when many of the opportunities that an individual dreamed of in childhood and adolescence are already irretrievably lost or seem to be lost, and the onset of one’s own old age is assessed as an event with a very real deadline, and not “sometime in the future.” During this period of life, a person tries to make up for what, as it seems to him, he missed at one time, “pulls up” one of the missed areas of his life to a level with which he will be satisfied.
Existential crisis- a feeling of deep psychological discomfort when questioning the meaning of existence. More common in cultures where basic needs for survival have already been met. It manifests itself in people who feel that they have achieved everything they wanted, have realized all the goals they set for themselves, and now they need to understand what to do next. It can also manifest itself in people who understand, thanks to a certain situation or some event (a rapid change in the picture of the world), that the meaning of life, it turns out, is completely different (different from previous ideas about it).
Manifestation of existential crisis:
- feelings of isolation and loneliness;
- awareness of one's own mortality or awareness of the absence of an afterlife;
- the realization that one's life has no purpose or meaning.
What do crises have in common (what are their similarities)?
All of them are accompanied by changes in emotions and mental states: disorientation, tension, anxiety, depression, mood swings, aggression. At this time, unstable and inadequate self-esteem and inappropriate behavior (one or the other) are observed. All crises can be accompanied by changes in professional activities, in the living environment, in the motivation system. If you suddenly want to change/reconsider some of the above in your life without good reason, then perhaps this is a signal of the beginning of a crisis.
Certain patterns of behavior and states during crises. Recommendations.
Not finding the right answer and an acceptable solution suitable in his case, having tried different options, a person starts life “from scratch”: a new place of residence, a new job, a new family, new hobbies, etc. Sometimes during a crisis a person turns to loved ones, friends or acquaintances for support and help. But “their” people can rarely help in such cases. Finding the right solution(answer) in all crises they go independently, i.e. a person must himself find the solution he needs and the answer that suits him. The longer the crisis lasts, the more the personality and consciousness changes. Being “in crisis” for a sufficiently long time may indicate that adaptation to the conditions of changes in the environment is poor at the mental level. In this case, you need the help of specialists.
In case of existential crises, you can turn to an existential psychologist. Some people find it helpful to communicate with religious representatives:
- dharmic religion (Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism, Sikhism),
- Abrahamic religion (Baha'i, Islam, Judaism, Christianity),
- traditional religions Far East(Taoism, Confucianism, Shintoism).
In case of age-related crises, when a person cannot cope on his own, one should seek advice from a psychologist who specializes in age-related crises. By the way, with this type of crisis, communication with more experienced people (the next generation who have already gone through a similar thing) also helps.
What is most often done when searching for solutions during crises.
They change environmental conditions and influence the situation in order to find “ golden mean" - reach a comfortable state. If this option does not work, then some personality traits and individual character traits begin to change.
When finding the right balance, reference points for the next stage of life and personal development can help:
- During a psychological crisis. Change in personality potential. New knowledge for profession or everyday life (special knowledge, local knowledge, knowledge of the specifics of society), development of existing skills, acquisition of new skills.
- During an age crisis. Changes in personality characteristics. Knowledge about age-related crises (how they pass), knowledge about your body (methods of maintaining mental and physical health), the ability to take responsibility and play new social roles.
- In an existential crisis. Spiritual and personal changes. Knowledge about the world order and humanity (natural science, history of social development, evolution). Getting to know new cultures and societies. Study of philosophy, morality of society. Formation of your new morality.
What are the differences between crises?
Psychological crisis(happens to everyone). Relationship with the situation. Personality changes. During it, minor emotional disturbances are observed. It takes a short time (days, less often weeks or months). Occurs periodically throughout life and often. In youth there are more such crises, but in “maturity” they become fewer. In youth, it is easy to cope with them thanks to a flexible psyche, but in old age it is more difficult, since it is difficult to adapt to the situation due to conditioned consciousness or age-related mental disorders. You can cope with a psychological crisis on your own. It is focused on finding solutions in the environment and society (a person needs abilities and knowledge, certain resources).
Age crisis(happens to everyone). Relationship with society. Personality change and the emergence of the spiritual. During it there may be neuroses, depression, and anxiety. Main crises: 30 years (one’s development, career, relationships) - “where to go next?” 40 years (family, aging, morality) - what is no longer possible and what has already been achieved, “Where should I NOT go?”. Occurs periodically, but much less frequently than a psychological crisis. Quite a long time passes (months, or even years). To cope with this crisis, sometimes you need help and support from others. Focused on finding solutions in the environment and society (social adaptation and roles, physiological adaptation).
Existential crisis(does not happen to everyone). Relationship with yourself (relationship with God). Rebirth of personality/death of personality and development/birth of the spiritual. The realization that, in addition to the BODY and PERSONALITY, there is SOMETHING. During this crisis, a person encounters new mental states. It can take quite a long time. Focused on searching for a solution in oneself or in the Universe/world. Changing the picture of the world and needs. The crisis may be accompanied by intermediate psychoses and states of altered consciousness.
Subtleties in the differences between crises.
- Psychological crisis - Me and the Situation. Promotes the development of individual potential. Context is some temporary problem/difficulty. To solve, you need to find some way to solve a specific situation. Searching for information - knowledge, tips, options, how it is possible, who has already done it.
- Age crisis-Me and Society . Promotes the development of self-awareness and development of individual potential. Contexts - family, work, friends. To solve it, you need to find acceptable roles and master them, learn to play them better, and make changes in your activities. The main thing is that the roles do not contradict their morality and accepted behavior in society, and comply with the laws and morals of society. And also so that the chosen activity is not dangerous to health and is in demand, and by doing it, a person would receive pleasure and a decent reward. Search for acceptable forms of activity and roles (I can and want; I can, but I no longer want; I want, but I can’t yet) taking into account one’s potential (knowledge, education, skills, health, opportunities, connections, resources).
- Existential crisis -Me and the World. Promotes the development of self-awareness. Contexts - the Universe and humanity, the world around, the Divine, me as part of this world. To make a decision, you need to find the meaning of life (what is worth living for) and an idea for which you are willing to die (defending it and developing it), what you are willing to pass on to other generations. Finding exactly your place in this world (understand what is unique and purposeful; gain an understanding that you are more than your body and personality, that you have certain talents that others do not have and they need to be used for the benefit of humanity, society, family).
Features of age-related and existential crises.
During an age crisis, you can still lead your old life, remain in society, while at the same time looking for the solution you need (a gradual exit). During an existential crisis, a person can no longer live in the old way. No meaning, no motivation. Accordingly, I don’t want to do anything from what I did before. To find a solution, you need to “fly out” of society for a while. Some people at this time prefer a unique way to “FLIGHT OUT from society” - simply lose themselves in alcohol or drug intoxication.
Age-related crises provoke the emergence of existential crises. Existential crises always push a person onto the path of spiritual quest.
The causes of age-related and existential crises and the features of how they pass.
Crises arise when a person with old knowledge and ideas about the world under specific circumstances cannot cope with a certain situation (they manifest themselves when adapting to difficult situations). A crisis can activate the cognitive instinct (a person begins to become interested in new things, topics can be different, information is mastered in large volumes) and make spiritual needs more relevant in relation to other existing needs. The cognitive instinct can activate the migration instinct: a person begins to look for new environmental conditions for life.
The active state of instincts (cognitive and migration) leads to changes in behavior: a person begins to learn something new, goes to travel. By the way, based on the signs that appeared (he began to study a lot and went/wanted to travel), one can understand that a person is going through a certain transition period in life. These signs are a kind of “markers” that signal serious internal processes taking place in the human psyche.
Why do crises arise? What is essential for their occurrence?
The main causes of crises are: the environment (case, circumstance), cognitive dissonance (changes in the environment or the receipt of information that do not correspond to the internal potential of a person and the information available to him), a change in the needs and values of the individual as a result of a certain incident or purposeful development of the individual.
What do crises lead to?
As a result of a crisis: psychological, age-related or existential, a person most often finds himself in a situation where he is forced to look for information, a solution, a coordinate system, state, meaning, internal balance.
What types of searches are there?
Main reasons for searching:
- The emergence of higher level needs;
- Being in a state of age-related crisis, which led to an existential crisis;
- A certain incident;
- Loss of previous landmarks.
Later in this article we'll talk more about spiritual searches that arise when changing the system of values and leading needs, when searching for the meaning of life - what is worth living for. These same searches are closely related to the topic of developing self-awareness.
Spiritual quest.
Spiritual quests lead to spiritual awakening (gaining faith) and the development of self-awareness. This is a search for spiritual and religious states, gaining new life experiences. These searches are most often prompted by age-related or existential crises. During these searches, a person understands:
- What material world it is not so important that there are other values;
- That the world works differently than it seemed to him before (he was taught this earlier).
From the point of view of psychology and neurophysiology, during spiritual quests a person becomes more irrational. His consciousness seems to shift to the right, i.e. at this time neurons from the right hemisphere function more (participate in the formation of active and dominant neural networks).
Predominance irrational thinking due to the above-mentioned phenomenon, it contributes to the dominance of religious, artistic, philosophical types of consciousness, i.e., the corresponding perception of the world begins to predominate. Changes in perception (altered states of consciousness) change the picture of the world (worldview, attitude) and contribute to finding new meaning, the emergence of a new understanding of the world. A shift in consciousness can occur due to the influence of the environment and changes in activity. Or due to changes in physiological processes affecting mental processes and states. Changes in physiological processes are achieved through spiritual practices, a certain diet, the organization of certain environmental conditions and adherence to a certain regime of activity and nutrition.
A striking example of the above is the post. When, subject to certain conditions (lifestyle and diet), a certain state is achieved at the level of physiology and psyche, allowing one to experience new emotional and physiological states (a vivid form of this is ecstasy).
Spiritual states are manifested in the following (features):
- Greater morality appears (I can’t lie, etc.);
- There is less aggression or no aggression at all (withdrawal from competition);
- Altruism appears (ready to help everyone for free);
- A feeling of love for all life on earth appears;
- There is a feeling of health (the body rebuilds physiological processes).
Spiritual states appear under certain living conditions: abstinence, rituals, daily routine, diet. Spiritual states contribute to the emergence of religious states (for example, ecstasy). Spiritual states and religious states are very specific states in humans. Many psychologists cannot distinguish them from neurotic and borderline mental states, so they make erroneous diagnoses. The spiritual state is the experience of the spiritual “I”. A belief emerges (through experience) that the inner world is somehow involved in Divine nature. This state is known to a person only through personal experience.
Religious state- a state of euphoria, conviction in a certain reality, based not on logic, but on faith. In the lives of “spiritually seeking” people, there are often situations where the psyche of a person who is engaged in spiritual practices is not sufficiently prepared for the manifestation of the state of “meeting the spiritual.” And as a result of this, the “seeker” experiences a mixing of the transpersonal “I” (spiritual) with the individual “I” (personal). Speaking in the language of philosophers, there is a confusion of relative and transcendental realities. And this is already fraught with mental disorders. In order to avoid possible problems, you need to be able to separate your states and use them for your needs. This is achieved through the targeted development of self-awareness. Through the development of self-awareness, one can develop the ability to distinguish what comes, let’s say, from God (religious and spiritual states), what comes from society (attitudes, stereotypes), and what is one’s own (one’s own experience and understanding of life). My advice is to first develop self-awareness, and then embark on a spiritual quest! If self-awareness develops first and this leads, as a consequence, to spiritual quests, then a person in this case comes to these quests prepared. Remember, spiritual searches in themselves (passion for fashion - “everyone around is ENLIGHTENED, so maybe I should too?”) can provoke an existential crisis! Spiritual quests can also appear during existential crises (most often this happens).
Recommendation for colleagues. If a person is not ready for spiritual quests, then it is first necessary to stabilize his psyche, if there were crises or neuroses, and only after that allow him to follow the path of spiritual quests.
Spiritual practices influence physiology and thus help shape certain mental states due to changes in mental processes. Mental processes change as a result of changes in physiological processes. A new mental state (state of altered consciousness), which appears as a result of practice, forms a new perception of reality: you can see or notice something that you had not noticed before, and this happens due to a different functioning of the senses. Thus, spiritual practices help a person in search to find new solutions and see new possibilities.
What are the main forms of self-searching that exist?
The most famous: asceticism (solitude and restrictions), pilgrimage (journey/travel to holy places, to new lands).
Asceticism. Features: the development of spirituality is associated with the development of compassion. In a society where you need to “defend yourself” (a society where success is more important than spirituality), it is difficult to develop OPENNESS to compassion. For this personal development solitude (hermitage, monasticism) is required. Solitude is also suitable for those who need to hear their inner voice (understand their true needs). An ascetic lifestyle helps to retire from society and “go within yourself.” These quests are associated with the development of self-awareness or can lead to this development.
Pilgrimage.Search for what you don’t know yet. It is important to interact with the environment (activity), manifest yourself in activity, change your point of view - create a new mental reality.
Search form: Asceticism.
A person retires for a while (1-6 months) to a monastery, ashram, a place remote from people (mountains, forest, village in the wilderness). And in this place, where less or no social activity is required, one tries to establish a dialogue with oneself: hear the inner voice, awaken intuition, feel one’s Soul. The purpose of this is to find a state of harmony, to restore inner peace of mind. A calm environment and spiritual practices help to achieve the desired state. Reading and learning new things often hinder rather than help. External vibrations and waves (sounds, light) prevent you from achieving the desired state. Therefore, to make it easier to SEARCH and FIND, certain conditions must be created in advance.
Changes are necessary at the level of physiology through the influence of environmental conditions, diet, and activity, so that due to changes in physiological processes, changes occur in mental processes and the necessary, productive mental states arise for searches, allowing better thinking, analysis, and reflection. During asceticism, a person goes from his previous state of “direction to the outside” (life in society) to the state of “direction to oneself” (life outside society). Having restored the internal state of calm, you can go further (intuition at this time begins to work differently, the person is ready to perceive new information and new states) and begin to look for answers to your questions (communication with other people, learning new information).
As a result of asceticism, if everything was organized correctly, a person finds the necessary answers and returns to society to continue living there (he is again socialized taking into account his new worldview) or changes the old society to a new one - he moves. Another option: understanding for yourself new meaning life, a person leaves society, joins religion or becomes a hermit. This option most often occurs among those who have experienced religious states and who, during asceticism, engaged in spiritual practices aimed at creating such states. There is also an option that after asceticism a person begins a pilgrimage in order to confirm the answers found, to find confirmation in the world of his new views and emerging guesses. Sometimes those who did not find the answers they needed for themselves during asceticism go on a pilgrimage after asceticism: they look for them further, but in a different form of “search” - they look for answers not IN THEMSELVES, but in the WORLD.
Search form: Pilgrimage.
A pilgrimage allows you to physically feel the transition from one of your states to another, to clearly see this transition, to experience new states that bring a person closer to the state that he is looking for (and this, in turn, helps a person understand what is now important for him and what you want in life, what you should strive for in the future). Pilgrimage is a “quest in the world.” Ascesis is “searching within oneself.” To create the necessary conditions during the pilgrimage, so that the necessary states appear, it is necessary to acquire new knowledge, encounter new situations, communicate more with new people, and read more. Spiritual practices during a pilgrimage in order to achieve the desired states (what a person is looking for) hinder more than they help. By the way, traveling (and pilgrimage is also a journey) contributes to the production of dopamine, which is responsible for motivation and pleasure. But staying in a state for a long time, which provokes the production of dopamine, leads to a decrease in the amount of serotonin in the body. And this over time leads to the appearance of depression and obsessive states. Conclusion - everything should be in moderation!
When going on a pilgrimage, you need:
- Monitor your physiological conditions;
- Have the opportunity to intervene promptly and promptly.
Finding out when it’s enough to GO (you need rest or reduction in activity) helps the ability to track your conditions and body indicators. To analyze your physical condition, there are now a sufficient number of devices on sale that allow you to monitor changes in the body based on urine and blood parameters (test strips and analyzers). Minimum set the necessary “handy tools” that allow you to monitor your physiological processes during the road will cost about 15,000 rubles (prices 2011-2012).
Important to remember for those who are searching!
Spiritual practices help in asceticism and interfere with pilgrimage. One form of self-searching suits some people, taking into account their temperament, and another form suits others. When making a pilgrimage, it should be taken into account that adaptation to new living conditions occurs at the level of the psyche and physiology (mental processes and states are interconnected with physiological states and processes).
Environmental conditions (geomagnetic field, solar radiation, air temperature and humidity, the presence of other people nearby and their mood and condition), nutrition (quality of water and food) help or hinder adaptation. External environment and nutrition influence physiological and mental states. The psyche changes due to changes in environmental conditions and activities. By moving in different environmental conditions and conducting different activities, we force the psyche to function differently. Travel/pilgrimage allows you to renew psychic reality at a speed that is acceptable to the psyche of the SEEKER, taking into account its individual characteristics. By changing the speed of movement, you can control mental states.
Sometimes pilgrimage leads to faster and better changes in consciousness than asceticism or visiting psychologists. That is, active searches aimed at finding resources outside oneself are sometimes more effective than searches aimed at finding resources within oneself.
On the other hand, new environmental conditions can have a detrimental effect on changes in the psyche due to the fact that the body (physiology) may not be ready for such sudden and serious changes (adaptation begins to be difficult and painful). In some cases, pilgrimage can be harmful at first physical health, and then, as a consequence, influence changes in the state of mental health. When choosing a pilgrimage route, you must take into account your body condition: age-related changes, the state of organ systems (endocrine, nervous, immune), the presence of chronic diseases and other health problems.
All this can have a detrimental effect on the search process itself and on the results of these searches. The pilgrimage presupposes a certain physical fitness and sufficient health for this form of quest.
Konstantin Fedotov
At the heart of the global crisis of earthly civilization in general and Russia in particular is the spiritual crisis of every person. S. Grof in his book “Frantic Search for Self” introduced the concept of “spiritual crisis”, understanding by it a state, on the one hand, that has all the qualities of a psychopathic disorder, and on the other hand, having a spiritual dimension and potentially capable of leading an individual to a higher level of existence /1/.
In order to understand the problem of spiritual crisis, it is necessary to consider it in the broader context of “spiritual self-discovery.”
Spiritual emergence is the movement of an individual toward an expanded, more fulfilling way of being, including increased levels of emotional and psychosomatic health, increased freedom of choice, and a sense of deeper connection with others, nature, and the entire cosmos. An important part of this development is an increased awareness of the spiritual dimension both in one's own life and in the world at large.
Spiritual self-disclosure can be divided into two types: immanent and transcendental. Immanent spiritual self-discovery is characterized by gaining a deeper perception of situations everyday life; these experiences are induced, as a rule, by external situations and are directed outward (to comprehend the Divine in the world). Transcendent spiritual self-discovery - the ability to more deeply perceive one's inner self world (to comprehend the Divine in oneself).
It should be noted that the concept of “spirituality” is interpreted differently by the authors. But this does not make this problem any less, since the atmosphere in the family he creates, as well as in society as a whole, depends on the spiritual state of a person.
The problem of spirituality is directly related to education. In this regard, it is important to take into account that Russian education has its own uniqueness, which lies in the fact that it is inseparable from the spiritual education of the individual. This applies to both Christian pedagogy of pre-revolutionary eras and the Soviet era. It is no coincidence that the outstanding Russian philosopher V.V. Zenkovsky saw a great closeness between religious and Soviet pedagogy /2/. But unfortunately modern education is also experiencing a deep crisis, and approximately only two students out of twenty, having received a minimal educational basis of knowledge and information, spend personal time on self-development and the formation of a “spiritual core.” Thus, at the moment, getting an education at a university can only help by 30% in personal self-development, and this is provided that humanitarian subjects are taught by teachers who are “passionate” about their work, who completely dedicate themselves, their wisdom and knowledge for the benefit of knowledge student of the world, history, man and society. Due to the reduction of hours in the humanities, this opportunity and percentages are rapidly decreasing.
Recognizing, following the representatives of Russian religious philosophy, the need for spirituality as a metaphysical core, without which the picture of the world is not holistic for the Russian person, we come to the contemplation of what is present and given - the logic of decay, deconstruction and destruction of personality - all that one is proud of Today is the era and culture of postmodernity. In the modern world, sadly, there is no place for spirituality.
An important problem facing a person on the path of spiritual growth and self-knowledge is the problem of finding true meaning, which is difficult in a culture where these meanings are replaced by simulacra, information garbage, and equivalent discourses. Throughout his life, an individual encounters a huge number of idealizations, stereotypes and other attitudes and parameters by which he evaluates the years he has lived. If we take into account that demands for the world appear already in childhood and are actively applied during communication, then with age people become deeper and deeper mired in their grievances, which ultimately result in latent or actualized confrontation with social groups, with themselves. Confirmation of our words is found in V. Frankl’s book “Man’s Search for Meaning.” It talks about the feeling of loss of meaning in modern man: “Here in America, I am surrounded on all sides by young people my age who are desperately trying to find meaning in their existence. Recently one of my best friends died, who was unable to find this meaning” /3, p. 24/. All these people about whom V. Frankl writes, who had made a career, lived outwardly quite prosperous and happy lives, did not find spiritual harmony and continued to complain about an overwhelming feeling of a complete loss of meaning. The above-mentioned author, the famous creator of logotherapy, i.e. word therapy, cites shocking statistics in his book: “It is known from statistics that among the causes of death among American students, the second most common cause of death after road accidents is suicide. At the same time, the number of suicide attempts (that did not end in death) is 15 times higher” /3, p. 26/. And we are talking about a very prosperous group of people in terms of material income, who lived in complete harmony with their family and actively participated in public life, having every reason to be pleased with their academic success.
According to official statistics, 1,100,000 people die from suicide every year in the world /4/. Russia ranks 3rd in the group of countries in terms of high and very high suicide rates, after Lithuania and Belarus. In our country, approximately 36 people per 100 thousand people commit suicide, which once again confirms the seriousness of the current situation. A. Einstein quite accurately noted that anyone who feels his life is devoid of meaning is not only unhappy, but also unlikely to be viable. In light of the seriousness of the problem of a person’s spiritual crisis, often leading to suicide or frustration,trying to analyze various options and ways to resolve it.
One part of people finds a “way out” of the spiritual crisis in positioning their individuality, believing themselves to be unique and isolating themselves from those who do not like this. Such a group tries to consolidate its position with exclusive branded items, i.e. by what E. Fromm called the principle of “having”, i.e. consumer attitude towards the world. In this regard, the popular policy of “individualization” in the United States (a policy that reduces the value system to the “American Dream” - the dream of material well-being and consumption) does not contribute to solving not only the problems of an individual person, but also the problems social relations generally. One has only to imagine what would happen if everyone took this position.
There is another way to “solve” problems - psychological trainings. They teach love for your neighbor, acceptance of life, only the argument is not religious dogma, for example, “it’s written in the Bible” or “everything is God’s will,” but gender-biological argumentation, which boils down to the principle: no need to impose on your spouse personal habits, since by nature men and women have different ways of thinking. If men think in concepts and take everything literally, then women express themselves abstractly and act on a wave of emotional impulse, which is completely incomprehensible for logically thinking husbands. A person who has successfully completed such training, however, does not practice the acquired skills for long, since they very often end up buried under a layer of grievances or demands. In this case, either he behaves as before, or he needs a repeat course.
The practice of participating in many different seminars and trainings shows that many psychologists put a person into a trance, using certain techniques that help identify hidden causes of mistakes, grievances, shortcomings and complexes within his psyche. However, this kind of training only “tears into pieces” and stirs up a hornet’s nest of the subconscious, without giving a recipe for the further assembly of one’s Self, without working through everything life situations, because it would take too much time. After all, our development proceeds in a spiral, and at each level we must work through the same problems. Due to a lack of strength, time and money, a person is eventually forced to stop his psychological training. There are other points, but the result is the same - a person is left alone with his problems and again collects himself piece by piece as best he can. Thus, it turns out that psychological training is ineffective and can only motivate for a short period of life.
Third group people are coming along the path of search, i.e. development. From the position of philosophy, development is an irreversible, directed, natural change in objects, as a result of which a qualitative change in the state of their composition and structures occurs, taking into account time indicators, i.e. complication of the human-nature-world system. In relation to higher and secondary education, this characteristic has become irrelevant, since knowledge not only does not correspond to qualifications, but also rarely has an impact on changing the consciousness of students, and the receipt of a diploma itself is dictated not by the interest of self-improvement, but by fashion. If previously it was necessary to engage in self-development, and this was part of educational system in the USSR, today self-education and education are in a gap. The first does not follow from the second. At the same time, the huge flow of information and the complication of social, political, and economic processes confront a person with the need for development, since it is necessary to learn to process and systematize information, and therefore to think broadly and have a worldview system. This path simultaneously leads to awareness of oneself, one’s place in the world.
In the process of the formation of society, a person, along with the ability to cognize, set and implement goals, formed self-awareness and, on its basis, a worldview. Everyday worldviews and worldviews, based on common sense and containing prejudices and mythical elements, are not distinguished by the depth of insight into the essence of phenomena, systematicity, and validity. The theoretical worldview, to which philosophy also belongs, gets rid of the above-mentioned shortcomings. In the worldview, knowledge leading to the search for truth is presented in an integral form; values as people’s attitude to everything that happens; life positions (person’s beliefs), formed on the basis of cognition and assessments and transformed through emotions and will into actions.
Worldview is embodied in the individual as the unity of his philosophical, moral, political, aesthetic and other ideas. It reveals the place and role of man in society and in the world as a whole, gives meaning to the history of mankind, provides general orientation in the totality of existence, and guides life strategy and behavior program. The worldview function of philosophy ensures that a person understands his place in an increasingly complex world. The methodological function of philosophy, closely related to the worldview, guides a person in his relationship to the world, teaches life strategies, “what you need to be to be a person.”
One of the allies of development is productive criticism, which shakes outdated views and at the same time preserves everything truly valuable in rejected forms of worldview, since a person stops “walking in circles”, and his development begins to move in a spiral. But relying only on reason is ineffective, which can be seen from an analysis of the history of philosophy, as well as the characteristics of the Russian mentality, for which the spiritual component has long been a priority.
Another path of development is religion, since believers transgress their own pride, learn to love their neighbor, accept this world as it is, and perceive problems as lessons necessary for unity with God. In a similar way a movement began, created after the appearance of the film “Pay It Forward,” whose heroes did good deeds, guided by their hearts and humanity, rather than by the desire for individualization and finding themselves. And reliance on sensory experience, as shown modern life, is not enough, since people most often take their personal faith to fanaticism. Thus, the optimal synthesis of philosophy and religion, especially since they have a common goal - to take a person out of the sphere of everyday life, give his life meaning, open the way to the most sacred values, and captivate him with ideals. The most significant general problems of religion and philosophy are spiritual and moral.
Religion and philosophy, having a certain kinship, at the same time chose different ways to reveal the secrets of existence. The basis of a religious view of the world is faith, recognition of a miracle, i.e. voluntaristic manifestations of God, not subject to the laws of nature. Philosophy reflected the growing need to understand the world and man from the position of “secular” knowledge, “natural” reason. Religion, according to B. Spinoza, seeks the acceptance of life as it is, remains at the level of imagination, and philosophy sets as its goal the comprehension of truth.
As a rule, in the spiritual exploration of the world, the role of a mentor was emphasized, designed to help the seeker follow the right path. The emphasis was on understanding the value and meaning of phenomena and the desire for personal self-improvement while observing traditions social group to which the individual belongs. Philosophical searches were aimed primarily at man and his soul, at developing ethical issues.
Having studied the history of philosophy, one can give a sufficient number of examples of people who were able to combine philosophy and religion together. For example, Francisco Skaryna, the pioneer East Slavic printer, humanist philosopher, writer, public figure, entrepreneur and medical scientist, said that the attachment of living beings to their native places is a natural and universal property, a pattern of existence, while the life of an individual becomes rational and purposeful . As a result of the connection of a living being with the clan, and the individual with the people, a person is woven into his native land, into society. This thinker exalts his native places and protects native language as a source of national identity and patriotic pride.
An example is Kant, who argues that the human mind is characterized by constant questioning. But where there is a lack of theoretical knowledge and experience, a void arises that can be filled with faith, since it is not possible to prove the immortality of the soul or the existence of God in a rational way.
Another example is Erich Fromm. He considers alienation, dehumanization and depersonalization of a person in a consumer society to be the main causes of conflicts underlying human existence in the modern world. To eliminate these negative phenomena, it is necessary to change social conditions, i.e. build a more humane society, as well as liberate a person’s inner abilities for love, faith, and reason. Due to the impossibility of changing social foundations at the moment, a person can still change his personal attitude towards a given situation, i.e. accept life and people as they are, then a person will acquire an even greater gift - a feeling of love, mercy and compassion. Compared to animals, humans have the ability to make decisions, but confrontation with alternatives creates a state of anxiety and uncertainty. Despite this, a person is forced to take responsibility for himself and his actions, otherwise those around him begin to mirror him until the soul comprehends what is necessary (for example: the relationship between husband and wife, mother and son, etc.), and only after realizing the problems, coming from within, we observe a change not only in the situation itself, but also in behavior in our environment.
You can quote the words of V.S. Solovyov, who argued that private sciences in their search for truth are based on known data taken on faith. In general, Russian religious philosophers XIX - XX centuries believed that faith is the most important phenomenon of human spirituality, it is a condition and stimulus for creativity, it is the direct acceptance by consciousness of life’s meanings as the highest truths, norms and values.
Having studied the biographies of creative people - artists, writers, inventors, scientists and others - we can see that many were deeply religious people. For example, Einstein’s statement that a little knowledge moves us away from God, and a lot of knowledge brings us closer to him.
As for Russia, it should be noted that in Russia, development since the times of Kievan Rus was understood as the knowledge of God, therefore, for the mentality of our people, this path is closer. Nevertheless, modern conditions in other areas, general philosophical knowledge is also necessary. A valuable example in this case can be some Chinese traditions. According to Chinese sages, the ideal person has a love of humanity. Society is based on moral standards that are of heavenly origin. The principle of morality - “what you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others,” formulated by Confucius - was subsequently reproduced many times. The main task of a person on earth is to care for other people, or rather souls. And all things are born and change thanks to their own path; in the process of change they turn into their opposite. We also find these thoughts in the aphorisms of Lao Tzu: “The perfectly intelligent strives to make existence well-fed, and not to have beautiful things” /5/. Many authors from different fields admit that no one has yet been able to comprehend the truth of life deeper than the teacher Confucius. And the result of such knowledge is a systematic view of the world, i.e. a harmonious combination of philosophy and religion.
Thus, our society needs not only to realize that the crisis that has arisen can be overcome only through personal quest and self-education, but also to learn to isolate valuable experience both from personal history and from the stories of other cultures, adapting and taking into account the individuality of the Russian mentality.
As for the West, many scientists and other authoritative people argue that it is unnecessary to mindlessly copy their models, since, despite the achieved standard of living, the problems of injustice and human suffering have not been resolved there. After all, the main task of any state is not to change the world, but to promote the spiritual self-improvement of the individual.
Literature
1. Grof K. Furious search for oneself / K. Grof, S. Grof. – M.: AST, Institute of Transpersonal Psychology, 2003.
2. Zenkovsky V.V. Problems of education in the light of Christian anthropology / V.V. Zenkovsky. - M.: Publishing house Svyato-Vladim. Brotherhoods, 1993. – 222 p.
3. Frankl V. Man in search of meaning: Collection / V. Frankl. – M.: Progress, 1990. – 368 p.
4. Suicide statistics // http://lossofsoul.com/DEATH/suicide/statistic.htm
5. Lao Tzu / comp. V.V. Yurchuk. – 3rd ed. – Minsk: " Modern word", 2006.
