Military science: Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. Academy of Military Sciences of the Russian Federation
In the Renaissance, rational, philosophical and scientific ideas again come to the fore in culture, as in the era of antiquity, from the point of view of which medieval concepts begin to be rethought. Another important feature of Renaissance culture is a new understanding of man. The Renaissance man no longer recognizes himself as a creature of God, but as a free master placed at the center of the world, who, at his own will and desire, can become either a lower or a higher being. Although a person admits his Divine origin, he himself feels like a creator.
Both of these features of Renaissance culture also lead to a new understanding of nature, science and human action. Natural laws gradually take the place of Divine laws, and hidden Divine forces, processes and energies take the place of hidden ones. natural processes, and created and creative nature turns into the concept of nature as the source of hidden natural processes that obey the laws of nature. Science and knowledge are now understood not only as describing nature, but also as revealing and establishing its laws. In this case, identifying the laws of nature is only partly their description; what is more important, identifying the laws of nature presupposes their constitution. In the concept of the law of nature, ideas of creation are visible, as well as similarities between the natural and the human (nature is fundamentally knowable, its processes can serve man).
Finally, a necessary condition for human activity aimed at using the forces and energies of nature is preliminary knowledge of the “laws of nature.” Another necessary condition is the definition of human triggering actions, so to speak, releasing and triggering the processes of nature. However, the Renaissance only creates the prerequisites for the formation of science in its modern understanding, and its ideological foundations and methodological principles are formulated in the works of modern philosophers. F. Bacon declares nature to be the main object of the new science and the condition of practical (engineering) action that produces “new nature”, the source of natural processes, but caused (triggered) by the practical actions of man. From this period, an understanding of nature began to take shape as an endless reservoir of materials, forces, and energies that a person can use provided that he describes the laws of nature in science. This creates the basis for the formation of an engineering attitude towards the world.
The main components of engineering activities are construction and design. Design is a type of engineering work that is carried out in various areas of human activity: in the design of technical systems, design, clothing modeling, etc. In engineering, design is mandatory integral part design process and is associated with design development technical system, which then materializes during production. Design includes the analysis and synthesis of various design options, their calculations, drawings, etc. The development of design options is usually associated with the formulation and solution of technical creativity problems. At the design level, the implementation of a technical idea takes place within the framework of experimental design development, which is associated with the formulation and solution of problems of technical creativity. During the design process, a drawing of a technical product or system is created, specific specifications and specific conditions of implementation are recorded (nature of the material, productivity, degree of environmental friendliness, economic efficiency, etc.). The result of the design development is technical product, finished design. Design is combined with the development of appropriate technological conditions, i.e. methods and technical specifications implementation of a specific model. Therefore, design is associated with technology, which reveals the mechanism for organizing the process for the production of a specific product. Design is the activity of a person or organization to create a project, that is, a prototype, prototype of a proposed or possible object, state; a set of documentation intended for the creation of a certain object, its operation, repair and disposal, as well as for checking or reproducing intermediate and final solutions on the basis of which this object was developed.
Engineering activities required special knowledge. At first it was knowledge of two kinds - natural science (selected or specially constructed) and technological knowledge itself (description of structures, technological operations, etc.). As long as we were talking about individual inventions, there were no problems. However, starting from the 18th century, industrial production and the need for replication and modification of invented engineering devices (steam boilers and spinning machines, machine tools, engines for steamships and locomotives, etc.) developed. The volume of calculations and design is increasing sharply due to the fact that more and more often an engineer is dealing not only with the development of a fundamentally new engineering object (i.e., an invention), but also with the creation of a similar (modified) product (for example, a machine of the same class, but with different characteristics - different power, speed, dimensions, weight, design, etc.). In other words, the engineer is now busy both with the creation of new engineering objects and with the development of a whole class of engineering objects similar to those invented. In cognitive terms, this meant the emergence of not only new problems due to the increased need for calculations and design, but also new opportunities. The development of a field of homogeneous engineering objects made it possible to reduce one case to another, one group of knowledge to another. If the first samples of an invented object were described using the knowledge of a certain natural science, then all subsequent, modified ones were reduced to the first samples. As a result, certain groups of natural science knowledge and schemes of engineering objects begin to be identified (reflected) - those that are united by the reduction procedure itself. In fact, this was the first knowledge and objects of technical sciences, but not yet existing in its own form: knowledge in the form of grouped natural science knowledge involved in information, and objects in the form of diagrams of an engineering object to which such groups of natural science knowledge belonged. This process was superimposed on two others: ontologization and mathematization.
Ontologization is step by step process schematization of engineering devices, during which these objects were divided into separate parts and each was replaced by an “idealized representation” (diagram, model). For example, in the process of invention, calculations and design of machines (lifting, steam, spinning, mills, clocks, machine tools, etc.) by the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, they were divided, on the one hand, into large parts (for example, Zh. Christian distinguished the engine, transmission mechanism, and tool in the machine), and on the other hand, into smaller ones (the so-called “simple machines” - an inclined plane, a block, a screw, a lever, etc.). Such idealized ideas were introduced so that mathematical knowledge, on the one hand, and natural science knowledge, on the other, could be applied to an engineering object. In relation to an engineering object, such representations were schematic descriptions of its structure (or the structure of its elements); in relation to natural science and mathematics, they specified certain types of ideal objects (geometric figures, vectors, algebraic equations, etc.; body movement along inclined plane, addition of forces and planes, rotation of the body, etc.).
The replacement of an engineering object with mathematical models was necessary in itself as a necessary condition for invention, design and calculation and as a stage in the construction of the ideal objects of natural science needed for these procedures.
Overlapping each other, the three main processes described here (reduction, ontologization and mathematization) lead to the formation of the first ideal objects and theoretical knowledge of technical science.
The further development of technical science was influenced by several factors. One factor is the convergence of all new cases (i.e. homogeneous objects engineering activities) to those already studied in technical science. Such reduction presupposes the transformation of objects studied in technical science and the acquisition of new knowledge (relationships) about them. Almost from the first steps of the formation of technical science, the ideal of organizing fundamental science was extended to it. In accordance with this ideal, knowledge of relations was treated as laws or theorems, and procedures for obtaining it were treated as evidence. Conducting proofs involved not only the reduction of new ideal objects to old ones already described in theory, but also the division of procedures for obtaining knowledge into compact, observable parts, which always entails the identification of intermediate knowledge. Similar knowledge and the objects resulting from the splitting of long and cumbersome proofs into simpler (clear) ones formed the second group of knowledge of technical science (in the theory itself, they, naturally, were not isolated into separate groups, but alternated with others). The third group included knowledge that made it possible to replace cumbersome methods and procedures for obtaining relationships between the parameters of an engineering object with simple and elegant procedures. For example, in some cases, the cumbersome transformation procedures and information obtained in two layers are greatly simplified after the original object is replaced first using the equations of mathematical analysis, then in graph theory, and the transformations are carried out in each of the layers. It is characteristic that the successive replacement of an object of technical science in two or more different languages leads to the fact that the corresponding divisions and characteristics of such languages (more precisely, their ontological representations) are projected onto the object. As a result, in an ideal object of technical theory, characteristics of several types are “fused” (through the mechanism of reflection and awareness): a) characteristics transferred to this object during the model replacement of an engineering object (for example, the knowledge that an oscillatory circuit consists of current sources, conductors, resistances, capacitances and inductances and all these elements are connected to each other in a certain way); b) characteristics directly or indirectly transferred from fundamental science (knowledge about currents, voltages, electric and magnetic fields, as well as the laws connecting them); c) characteristics taken from the mathematical language of the first, second..., nth layer (for example, in the theory of electrical engineering they talk about the most general interpretation of Kirchhoff’s equations, given in the language of graph theory). All these characteristics in technical theory are so modified and rethought (some, incompatible, are omitted, others are changed, others are attributed, added from the outside) that a fundamentally new object arises - the actual ideal object of technical science, which in its structure recreates in a compressed form all of the listed types characteristics. The second process that significantly influenced the formation and development of technical science is the process of mathematization. From a certain stage of development of technical science, researchers move from the application of individual mathematical knowledge or fragments of mathematical theories to the use of entire mathematical apparatuses (languages) in technical science. They were driven to this by the need to carry out, in the course of invention and design, not only analysis, but also synthesis of individual processes and the structural elements that support them. In addition, they sought to explore the entire field of engineering possibilities, i.e. We tried to understand what other characteristics and relationships of an engineering object could be obtained, and what calculations could be made in principle. During the analysis, the research engineer seeks to obtain knowledge about engineering objects, describe their structure, functioning, individual processes, dependent and independent parameters, relationships and connections between them. In the process of synthesis, based on the analysis performed, he constructs and carries out calculations (however, the operations of synthesis and analysis alternate, determining each other).
What are the conditions for the use of mathematical apparatus in technical sciences? First of all, for this it is necessary to introduce ideal objects of technical sciences into the ontology of the corresponding mathematical language, i.e. represent them as consisting of elements, relations and operations characteristic of the objects of mathematics of interest to the engineer. But, as a rule, the ideal objects of technical science differed significantly from the objects of the chosen mathematical apparatus. Therefore, a long process of further schematization of engineering objects and ontologization begins, ending with the construction of such new ideal objects of technical science that can already be introduced into the ontology of certain mathematics. From this moment on, the research engineer has the opportunity to: a) successfully solve synthesis-analysis problems, b) explore the entire studied area of engineering objects for theoretical possible cases, c) come to the theory of ideal engineering devices (for example, the theory of an ideal steam engine, the theory of mechanisms, the theory of radio engineering devices, etc.). Ideal theory engineering device represents the construction and description (analysis) of a model of engineering objects of a certain class (we called them homogeneous), performed, so to speak, in the language of ideal objects of the corresponding technical theory. An ideal device is a structure that a researcher creates from the elements and relationships of ideal objects of technical science, but which is precisely a model of engineering objects of a certain class, since it imitates the basic processes and constructive formations of these engineering devices. In other words, in technical science there appear not just independent ideal objects, but also independent objects of study of a quasi-natural nature. The construction of such model structures significantly facilitates engineering activities, since the research engineer can now analyze and study the basic processes and conditions that determine the operation of the engineering object he creates (in particular, the ideal cases themselves).
If we now briefly summarize the considered stage of the formation of technical sciences classic type, then the following can be noted. The incentive for the emergence of technical sciences is the emergence as a result of the development industrial production areas of homogeneous engineering objects and application in the course of inventions, design and calculations of knowledge of natural sciences. The processes of reduction, ontologization and mathematization determine the formation of the first ideal objects and theoretical knowledge of technical science, the creation of the first technical theories. The desire to apply not individual mathematical knowledge, but entirely defined mathematics, to explore homogeneous areas of engineering objects, to create engineering devices, so to speak, for future use leads to the next stage of formation. New ideal objects of technical sciences are created, which can already be introduced into mathematical ontology; on their basis, systems of technical knowledge are developed and, finally, a theory of an “ideal engineering device” is created. The latter means the emergence in the technical sciences of a specific quasi-natural object of study, i.e. technical science is finally becoming independent.
The last stage of the formation of technical science is associated with the conscious organization and construction of the theory of this science. Extending the logical scientific principles developed by the philosophy and methodology of science to technical sciences, researchers identify in technical sciences the initial principles and knowledge (equivalent to the laws and initial provisions of fundamental science), derive secondary knowledge and provisions from them, and organize all knowledge into a system. However, unlike natural science, technical science also includes calculations, descriptions technical devices, methodological instructions. The orientation of representatives of technical science towards engineering forces them to indicate the “context” in which the provisions of technical science can be used. Calculations, descriptions of technical devices, and methodological instructions precisely define this context.
Technical sciences were formed in close interaction with the formation engineering education. Let's consider this process using the example of Russia.
Technical education in Russia was initiated by the Engineering School (1700) and the Mathematics and Navigation School (1701). The teaching methodology was more of a craft apprenticeship: practicing engineers explained to individual students or small groups of students how to build this or that type of structure or machine, how to practically carry out this or that type of engineering activity. New theoretical information was communicated only in the course of such explanations, teaching aids were descriptive. At the same time, the engineering profession became more complex and practice placed new demands on the training of qualified engineering personnel.
Only after the founding of the Paris Polytechnic School by G. Monge in 1794, which from the very beginning of its founding was focused on high theoretical training of students, the situation in engineering education changed. Many engineering educational institutions in Germany, Spain, Sweden, and the USA were built on the model of this school. In Russia, following its example, the Institute of the Corps of Railway Engineers was created in 1809, the head of which was appointed Monge’s student A.A. Betancourt. He developed a project in accordance with which schools were established for the training of mid-level technical personnel: a military construction school and a school for railway conductors in St. Petersburg. Later (in 1884) this idea was developed and implemented by the outstanding Russian scientist, member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences I.A. Vyshnegradsky, according to whose thoughts technical education should be extended to all levels of industrial activity, higher schools that train engineers, secondary schools that train technicians (close assistants to engineers), and schools for foremen, factory workers. TO end of the 19th century century, the scientific training of engineers, their special, namely higher technical education, become urgently necessary. By this time, many craft and secondary technical schools were transformed into higher technical schools and institutes, in which much attention began to be paid specifically to the theoretical training of future engineers.
Except educational institutions the dissemination of technical knowledge was the goal of various technical societies. For example, the Russian Technical Society, formed in 1866, in accordance with its charter, aimed to promote the development of technology and technical industry in Russia both “through readings, meetings and public lectures on technical subjects” and through “petitions to the government for adoption measures that may have a beneficial effect on the development of the technical industry."
Questions for control and self-test:
1. What are the reasons for the emergence and isolation of technical sciences?
2. Describe the main characteristics of classical engineering sciences.
3. How is the formation and development of technical sciences related to engineering education?
MILITARY THOUGHT No. 5/2004
About structure and content military science at the present stage development of military thought
Retired Lieutenant GeneralS.A. BOGDANOV ,
Doctor of Military Sciences
MILITARY SCIENCE has, as we know, gone through a difficult path of development. At every historical stage, from the era of cold steel to the era of nuclear weapons, the experience of armed struggle acquired by peoples and states led to the accumulation of a wide variety of knowledge about military affairs, which military and statesmen, scientists, theorists and practitioners described in the form of a theory of armed warfare. struggle, theories of military affairs and generalized in the form a certain system military theoretical knowledge of military science, shaped its structure and content.
The First and Second World Wars became a powerful impetus for the development of military science as a system of knowledge about laws, the military-strategic nature of wars, the construction and preparation of armed forces and the population of states for wars, and methods of conducting armed struggle. The generalization and development of this knowledge in our country and abroad manifested itself most clearly, in my opinion, in the second half of the 20th century, both in the form of the publication of fundamental monographs and high-quality scientific articles, among which articles in the journal “Military Thought” became notable for their time "
An analysis of these publications shows that the interpretation of the structure and content of military science has always depended on an understanding of the essence of war, its social and military-technical aspects; the degree of maturity and level of development of military science in general and its theoretical and methodological foundations in particular; the nature and features of the development of the material and technical base of military affairs; the nature of economic, socio-political relations in society and political system states; the nature and main trends of each specific era, its contradictions and trends.
IN last years In the journal's publications, attention to the problems of the development of military science again increased. Among them, noteworthy, in my opinion, are the articles by M.A. Gareeva, S.A. Tyushkevich, V.A. Vinogradova, V.D. Ryabchuk and V.A. Kulikov (see Military thought. 2000. No. 2, 3, 6; 2001. No. 1, 2, 6; 2002. No. 3). In these articles, the authors, based on rich personal experience, give their vision of the system of military scientific knowledge, their role in shaping the structure and content of military science, and show that today the effectiveness of the solution complex problems military security of the state is directly related to the level of development of the methodology of military scientific research.
Doctor of Philosophy S.A. Tyushkevich, for example, especially emphasizes in his article that “the state of military science does not fully meet modern requirements, and some of its provisions, conclusions and recommendations are simply outdated... Some of their provisions and principles have been uncritically discarded, and the formation of new ones is difficult, since in this process schools and directions collide, which differently explain the current stage of development of military affairs.”
The article by Doctor of Historical Sciences V.A. is of particular interest. Kulikov, which proposes to “define the general concepts of military affairs of the state, the system of its military-scientific knowledge.” According to the author of the article, “in the overwhelming majority of scientific reference publications in recent years, the term “military affairs” was either simply absent, or it was defined not as an activity, but as a “conventional term”... or as “theory and practice”... As a result, not only did an unfounded substitution of the concept of “theory of military affairs” begin with the concept of “military science (or sciences),” which some political scientists and military experts ambiguously elevated to the “science of sciences,” but also the effectiveness of the military affairs of the Russian state began to decline.”
I consider it necessary to emphasize that, in my opinion, there has not been any substitution of the concept of “theory of military affairs,” and the effectiveness of military affairs has decreased due to the radical democratic transformations of our society. V.A. Kulikov admits that the core of the “theory of military affairs of the state” is military science, but at the same time, in the proposed version of the structure of this theory, he singled out for military science, in my opinion, a small, isolated cell with limited functions, and military-political, military -strategic, military-technical and military-economic foundations and scientific foundations for the development of military doctrine were included in the structure of the theory of military affairs of the state in place of the first, fundamental element of this structure, which cannot be agreed with.
It is well known that there is a special relationship between military science (including military affairs) and military doctrine. The doctrine, in a broad sense, expresses the views and attitudes of nations and states on the possibilities and ways of achieving their political goals using military means. The special status of military doctrine is determined by the fact that it is formed on the basis of the achievement of all military-theoretical knowledge and specific military-political practice, contains the most important provisions developed by many sciences and adopted by the highest political and military leadership, which gives these provisions an official and directive character . But at the same time, it cannot be an integral part of the theory of military affairs.
We cannot agree with the statement of V.A. Kulikov that “military scientific reference publications published both in our country and abroad reflect military knowledge, interpret concepts and terms at the level of generalization, as a rule, 2030 years ago.” In my opinion, in recent years, more precisely in beginning of XXI century, all military scientific concepts and terms underwent a radical reformation. Apparently, for this reason, the publication of the “Military Encyclopedia”, which V.A. mentions in his article. Kulikov is delayed.
However, new dictionaries and reference books are being published and are being prepared for printing. For example, in the “Dictionary of basic terms and concepts in the field of military security” prepared for publication, edited by State Duma deputy D.O. Rogozin and the Chief of the General Staff of the RF Armed Forces, Army General A.V. Kvashnin interprets the concept of “military affairs” as follows. This is “a collective term that covers all issues of military theory and practice related to the construction, preparation and actions of the state’s armed forces in peacetime and war, as well as the preparation of the economy, population and the country as a whole for war. In a narrow sense, this is a system of knowledge and skills of military personnel to fulfill their military duty.”
The same dictionary also gives a new interpretation of the definition of military science: “This is a system of knowledge about the strategic nature and laws of war, the construction and preparation of the armed forces and the country for war and methods of conducting armed struggle. The object of knowledge of military science is war, which it studies along with other social, natural and technical sciences. The subject of military science is armed struggle during various wars and conflicts.” These definitions of the terms “military affairs” and “military science” allow us to reason about the military-scientific theory of the state.
Change of historical eras, changes in character international relations, turns in the social technology of the state, the transformation of Russia into a corrupt oligarchic state with a broken economy, the emergence of fundamentally new types of weapons, weapons and equipment in the new technological basis lead to changes in trends in the development of the Armed Forces, their technical equipment, training and education of personnel, and, accordingly, in the field of military art. Some of them disappear from the scene, others are born, some are preserved, but acquire new features. All this leaves an imprint on the nature of the structure and content of military science and military affairs in general.
With the collapse of the bipolar world, the geopolitical situation in it changed dramatically. The United States, remaining the only superpower, has energetically embarked, according to former British Environment Secretary Mike Mitscher, in implementing the “Project for a New American Century.” Every year their desire for globalism is becoming more and more clearly visible. At the initiative of the United States different regions In the world, the number of wars (armed conflicts) has sharply increased, during which the United States achieves its military-economic goals. Analysis of the content of these wars (armed conflicts) shows that they cover all spheres of life of the warring states, include all forms and methods of struggle, of which the armed is not always the main one.
As a result of the emergence of fundamentally new means of struggle, as well as methods of conducting it, a redistribution of the role and significance of the spheres of armed struggle occurred. The aerospace sphere has become a priority, with a simultaneous sharp increase in the influence of information warfare on the course and outcome of the war. These fundamental changes have created the need to develop and use completely new forms and methods of conducting military operations during modern wars (armed conflicts). And this, naturally, requires the use of new methods for forecasting the entire range of military phenomena, a unified approach to solving both general and specific problems of military science.
In this situation, a new stage in the development of military theoretical thought began, reflecting new phenomena in the content of regional (local) wars of the 21st century and armed struggle in particular, the influence of the economic, social and military capabilities of the state, its military organization on the conduct of modern war and the war of the future. The outcome of the war began to depend on the military-technological development of the warring states, the presence of sufficient quantities of high-precision weapons of various bases and the ability of the parties to proactively use information technology. Other trends in modern warfare have also developed. In this regard, there is a need to clarify the laws of its conduct, which have a certain significance for the content and structure of military science.
At the new stage in the development of military theoretical thought, the main efforts of military science will also be directed toward understanding the social and natural-technical forms of movement occurring in modern war in general and armed struggle in particular. The specific aspects of war, which are studied only by military science and which no other branch of knowledge can comprehend, will, as in the past, first of all, determine the strategic nature of the war, knowledge of its laws, development of principles and methods of preparing and conducting armed struggle in the strategic, operational and tactical scale, etc.
Military science, while exploring the content of armed struggle, will continue to simultaneously consider its connections with the general laws of war, socio-economic and socio-political factors, and formulate military-strategic provisions for the military doctrine of the state, ensuring its military security. And at a new stage in the development of military theoretical thought, military science in our country will be considered, in all likelihood, as a system of knowledge about laws, the military-strategic nature of wars, armed conflicts, ways to prevent them, build and prepare the Armed Forces and the country for military security , about the laws, principles, forms and methods of conducting armed struggle to protect the Russian state and its interests in the international arena.
Without a doubt, military science as a system of military scientific knowledge, covering a significant number of interrelated subjects, disciplines, theories, will have a complex structure. Of course, when clarifying the latter, it will be necessary to use the principles of scientific logic, according to which it is necessary to single out this or that particular theory on one basis, to avoid duplication, that is, to include in a given theory questions that constitute only its content.
The structure of military science has had and will have a significant influence on the creation of research structures of the Russian Ministry of Defense, its research institutes, research centers, problem laboratories and other research organizations. It will help to more accurately determine the participation of other sciences in military research and obtain significant results, purposefully solving the problem of training scientific personnel and their specialization.
In this regard, the structure of military science at the new stage of its development, adjusted to take into account the new military-political realities in Russian state and in the world in general, can be represented as a system of knowledge about war and military security in the aggregate of the following interconnected components: general theory; theory of military art; theory of building the Armed Forces; theory of military training and education; theory of military economics; theory of command and control of the Armed Forces; theory of comprehensive provision; weapons theory; theory of military history; theories of types and branches of troops of the Armed Forces; private theories of other troops of the military organization of the state (Fig.). It should be noted that initially such a scheme in the form of a system of knowledge about war, army and defense security was developed and published by Army General M.A. Gareev.
In a generalized form (the generalized structure of military scientific knowledge according to the views of Russian military theorists) it is presented in his article by V.A. Kulikov. However, the radical changes that have taken place in the world in general and in Russia in particular, cause an urgent need to introduce some clarifications into the content and structure of military science.
At a new stage in the development of military-theoretical thought, military science will occupy a place in the general system of military-theoretical knowledge central place. It will be closely connected with basic social sciences and military doctrine, social, natural and technical sciences that develop specific military problems in the interests of ensuring armed struggle. Acting as a coordinating core, military science will enrich other sciences with specific knowledge about promising development military affairs, aim at current issues, orient them in a certain way, using their concepts, categories, laws and research methods. At the same time, military science must actively use the results obtained by other sciences, and include some of them in its content.
The most important component of military science will be the theory of military security of the state, which studies the goals and state strategy in the field of ensuring the security of society, the Armed Forces and the state from external and internal threats of a political, economic, social, military, man-made, environmental, information and other nature, taking into account available resources and the capabilities of the Armed Forces and the state in close cooperation with adjacent sciences that interface with military sciences.
In the new conditions of the country's development, the system of scientific knowledge about war and military security will continue to be filled with military-social, military-natural and military-technical sciences related to issues of military security, the creation of means of armed struggle and its conduct (military problems of social, natural and technical sciences adjacent and interfacing with military science).
As an analysis of the evolution of military science shows, its structure never remains unchanged. As military science itself develops, new tasks emerge for it, and the range, depth and volume of knowledge increases, the structure of military science will be refined and improved, new components or sections will appear, and the relationships between them will change. This will also be facilitated by the processes of integration and differentiation of knowledge characteristic of the development modern sciences, including military.
At a new stage in the development of military theoretical thought, the general theory will reflect the results of studying, first of all, the laws of modern war and armed struggle, which express essential connections in these phenomena themselves. At the same time, an important factor will remain the general methodological requirement of dialectical logic, which consists in taking into account not one law or category, but all the basic laws and categories of materialist dialectics in their interaction when considering a particular phenomenon, since each of them in application to knowledge military science acts as a methodological principle that makes it possible to identify certain features and essential aspects of new processes of modern war in general and armed struggle in particular, to clarify the relationship and interdependence with other laws of military science. That is, the general theory of military science must have uniform methodological fundamental guidelines for all its components.
The general theory, as before, will explore the object, subject, structure and methods of military science, its role and place in the general system of military theoretical knowledge; identify and learn the categories, patterns and principles of armed struggle, the construction of the Armed Forces in conjunction with general knowledge about war. But at a new stage in the development of military theoretical thought in the study of general principles, the search for more effective methods and forms of solving the problems of military science will acquire special importance.
It must be assumed that the theory of military art at a new stage in the development of military theoretical thought will remain one of the main components of military science, continuing to explore and understand the nature, patterns, principles, forms and methods of preparing and conducting armed struggle of all scales. In its research, this theory, at the new stage, will be based on objective laws, use the provisions and conclusions obtained by other branches of military science, as well as branches of social, natural and technical sciences involved in the study of problems of military affairs.
At a meeting with the leadership of the Russian Armed Forces on October 2, 2003, the Russian Minister of Defense emphasized that “the relationship between strategy, operational art and tactics has changed, although all these categories of military art will retain their importance.” In this regard, the tasks of the theory of military art must undergo some clarification. It is quite natural that, as in the past, the most important of them will be studies of the principles, types, forms and methods of preparing and conducting military operations. However, the content of all of them needs to be improved. The structure of this theory will remain unchanged for the near future: strategy, operational art and tactics.
The theory of strategy has been and will be uniform for all branches of the Armed Forces and will continue to occupy a leading place in the theory of military art. The Minister of Defense, in his instructions at the above-mentioned meeting, noted that in the future “the internal and external indicators of the armed struggle will change. It will strictly link the actions of a large number of branches of the Armed Forces, branches of the armed forces and special forces, performing a huge number of complex interconnected strategic, operational and tactical tasks simultaneously in all spheres of armed struggle.”
In these conditions, taking into account the changes that have taken place, it is the theory of strategy that will be able to develop the foundations of national-state military security at a new stage; determine the possible nature of wars of the modern era and military-technical ways to prevent them, identify new patterns of armed struggle, determine the content of the tasks of the Armed Forces and methods of solving them; develop the basis for planning the use of the Armed Forces in new conditions and measures to prepare them to repel possible aggression; to clarify the requirements and recommendations for the construction of the Armed Forces, the preparation of the population, economy and territory of the country in the interests of repelling possible aggression, as well as the basics of leadership of the Armed Forces in peace and war.
In addition, the theory of strategy will have to study and evaluate the military-strategic views of a potential enemy and its capabilities for waging war and the strategic assessment of possible areas and regions of military operations.
The theory of operational art at the new stage of development of military theoretical thought must also undergo significant clarification. The redistribution of the role and importance of the spheres of armed struggle that has occurred in the last decade, the emergence of means of struggle based on modern technologies, and new ways of conducting it raise an urgent need to make appropriate adjustments to the system of scientific knowledge about the preparation and conduct of future operations by associations various types and branches of the Armed Forces, other troops (forces) in a single grouping.
The main objectives of this theory will be: knowledge and research of the new nature and content of operations of future armed struggle; determination of new methods of preparing and conducting operations, the use in them of associations, formations and units of branches and branches of the Armed Forces and other troops; development of requirements for a new organizational structure and armament of the future Armed Forces and clarification of the basics of command and control of formations, formations and units of branches and branches of the Armed Forces, other troops (forces) participating in the operation and their unified comprehensive support; development of requirements and recommendations for the operational equipment of basing areas, concentrations of troops and their actions; studying the views of a potential enemy on the preparation and conduct of military operations on an operational scale.
The structure of the theory of operational art will apparently remain unchanged: combined arms and general naval operational art; operational art of the Air Force; operational art of the Strategic Missile Forces; operational art of the Space Forces. Each of these sections will have to learn and explore the forms and methods of preparing and conducting joint operations of all types and branches of the Armed Forces, develop special issues related to the use of formations and formations of one or another type of the Armed Forces in combined arms, general naval operations.
Since the theory of tactics is in close relationship with the theory of operational art, significant adjustments to the latter will cause corresponding clarifications in the system of knowledge about the preparation and conduct of combat by formations, units (ships) and subunits of various types and branches of the Armed Forces and other troops. In the new conditions, the theory of tactics will continue to explore the nature and content of combat, develop new ways and methods of its preparation and conduct, and study the combat properties of weapons and military equipment on a new technological basis used by the parties in battle. New tasks of the theory of tactics will be: study of the nature and content of modern combat (combat operations); the influence of concentrated fire, strike, mobility and maneuver on the course and outcome of the battle; determination of rational methods of preparation and conduct of combat; establishing optimal conditions for studying the combat capabilities of weapons and protective equipment; determining the tasks of formations, units (ships) and subunits in various types of combat and environmental conditions; developing ways to organize and maintain close interaction between formations, units and subunits in battle; development of recommendations on the management of troops, forces, their combat, technical and logistical support; development of requirements for weapons and organizational structure of formations, units and subunits.
At the new stage of development of military theoretical thought, it will be necessary to introduce significant clarifications into the theory of the construction of the Armed Forces. Changes in the social system of Russia, the adoption of the concept (doctrine) of building a new Armed Forces, the basis of which, in addition to powerful nuclear forces, will be highly mobile forces general purpose, equipped with the latest weapons and equipment and contract personnel, will cause an urgent need to adjust the system of knowledge about the laws and principles of the creation, improvement and development of the Armed Forces, methods of their recruitment and technical equipment.
The main tasks of the theory of building the Armed Forces in the new conditions will be: determining their rational composition, a new organizational structure, correlations and roles of types and branches of troops of the Armed Forces and other troops; clarification of the ways and procedures for acquisition and technical equipment; development of recommendations on the organization of military service, quartering of troops, training, creation of reserves and reserves of all types. The structure of the theory of building the Armed Forces will include: the basics of combat and mobilization readiness; manning and technical equipment, training of military personnel; organization of military service and quartering of troops; creation of reserves and stocks.
The theory of military training and education at the new stage of development of theoretical thought should also receive further development. Equipping our army and navy with the latest weapons and equipment, the transition to the contract method of manning personnel will be the main factor causing the need to introduce appropriate clarifications into the system of knowledge about the content, forms and methods of individual training of personnel, training of units, units (ships), formations, associations and governing bodies to conduct military operations. The theory of military training and education will cognize and explore the patterns of the educational process in relation to the new Russian Armed Forces, the organization, planning and management of this process, the forms and methods of training and education. In the new conditions, the tasks of the theory of military training and education will be: clarification of scientifically based recommendations for the formation of high moral, psychological and combat qualities and military skill in army and navy soldiers; improving the field, air and sea training of troops and forces; maintaining constant high combat and mobilization readiness of the Armed Forces to defend the Fatherland.
The theory of comprehensive support at the new stage of development of military theoretical thought will also receive further development. Integration of the entire supporting process of the Armed Forces and other troops of the Russian Federation as a result of the transition to interdepartmental systems of comprehensive support for their official activities will lead to the need to make appropriate adjustments to the system of scientific knowledge about the comprehensive provision of preparation and conduct of future military operations.
The theory of weapons, without any doubt, will not be a system of knowledge, which is described in the article discussed above by V.A. Kulikova. In the new conditions, it will constitute a system of knowledge about the development of weapons and military equipment (WME) for the army and navy. The object of its knowledge will be the military-technical side of war, armed struggle and scientific and technological progress, and the subject of equipping the army and navy with weapons and military equipment, their operation and liquidation.
The content of the tasks of weapons theory will probably remain unchanged. These include: analysis and generalization of the experience of creating, improving and developing means of armed struggle in new conditions, drawing conclusions, lessons and trends from this analysis; knowledge and development of new methodological foundations of theory, patterns, principles, requirements for the development of weapons and military equipment systems; justification of promising state armament programs; determination of methods of organization, comprehensive support of processes related to the development of weapons systems and military equipment, as well as their management; study and development of recommendations on the problems of operation and liquidation of weapons and military equipment systems.
An analysis of the experience of combat operations of federal troops in both Chechen campaigns gives reason to believe that at the new stage of development of military theoretical thought, the theory of command and control of the Armed Forces will also undergo significant changes. In the new conditions, the content of the knowledge system about the command and control of troops in various types of their activities will apparently change, the principles and methods of targeted influence on the composition, condition and functioning of the Armed Forces in peacetime and wartime will be clarified. The main tasks of control theory in the new conditions will be: research of the operational, organizational and technical aspects of the problems of managing the Armed Forces at all levels; identification of management patterns and the mechanism for their manifestation in practice; determination of principles, trends in the construction and functioning of military and naval control systems in peace and war; determining directions and ways to improve and develop systems, organizational forms and management methods; production practical recommendations on the work of commands and headquarters during the preparation and during combat operations to improve the forms and content of combat documents, taking into account the development and use of new technical means and automated systems management; development of methods for studying management problems, criteria and methods for assessing the effectiveness of command and control of troops and forces.
The change in the social system in Russia, the market relations of military-industrial complex (DIC) enterprises with the Armed Forces and other social transformations will significantly affect the content of the theory of military economics, which, in my opinion, will have to systematize the system of knowledge about the economic support of the Armed Forces and armed struggle at a new stage development of military theoretical thought. The object of study of the theory of military economics in the new conditions will be the economy of the state, and the subject will be the economic support of the Armed Forces in peace and war.
The main objectives of the theory of military economics will be: to clarify the knowledge of the patterns of development and functioning of the country's military economy in peacetime and wartime at a new stage; determination of the probable material needs of the war and the conditions for economic support of the Armed Forces in it; improving sound provisions on the development of the military-economic potential of the state and preparing its economy for war; development and justification of requirements for the state’s economy arising from the nature of war and armed struggle, as well as from the provisions of military doctrine; finding ways and means of timely transfer of the economy to martial law, increasing the stability of its functioning; analysis of the state and development of recommendations for the preparation and use of the military-economic base of Russian regions in the interests of armed struggle; development of principles and methods of economic support for military operations of the Armed Forces; development of problems of managing the military economy.
Military history in new conditions will, of course, continue to study the wars and armed forces of the past, their dependence on the material, technical, socio-economic and political conditions of society, and the experience of military activities of states. Unlike other branches of military knowledge, it will deal with facts, events, and processes that actually took place, that is, accomplished facts, events, and processes, which will give the research results greater reliability and the possibility of their critical assessment from the standpoint of modern times.
In conclusion, we note that in the future the study of the development of military thought will occupy a special place in military science. This will make it possible to determine and understand the main directions, patterns and principles of the development of military science in general and its branches in particular.
Military encyclopedia: In 8 volumes. M.: Voenizdat, 1994. T. 2. P. 130134.
See: Kozlov S.N., Smirnov M.V., Baz I.S., Sidorov P.A. On Soviet military science, M.: Voenizdat, 1964. P. 404; 3 e m sko in V.I. On the question of the general theory and structure of military science//Military Thought. 1972. No. 8, 10; Gareev M.A. System of knowledge about war and the army//Military thought. 1976. No. 8 and others.
Tyushkevich S.A. A necessary condition for the development of military science // Military Thought. 2000. No. 3. P. 36.
Kulikov V.A. Logic and theory of military affairs//Military thought. 2002. No. 3. P. 44.
Right there. P. 44.
Right there. P. 51.
Right there. P. 44.
Gareev M.A. Ariadnine threads of military affairs//Independent Military Review. 1998. No. 32.
Kulikov V.A. Logic and theory of military affairs. P. 47.
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MILITARY SCIENCE
system of knowledge about laws, military strategist. the nature of war, ways to prevent it, the construction and preparation of the Armed Forces and the country for war, patterns, principles and methods of warfare. struggle. War as a complex socio-political. the phenomenon is studied by many societies, natural. and tech. sciences. Basic subject V.N. is armed. struggle. V.n. explores problems of war and weapons. struggle, taking into account the dependence of its progress and outcome on the relationship of economics, morality, politics, science and technology. and military capabilities of the warring parties, its forms, methods of preparation and conduct in strategic., operational. and tact. scale in large-scale, regional, local wars and armed conflicts; composition, organization and technical aircraft equipment; problems of military training and education, training of the population and mobilization. resources for war; content, forms and methods of command and control of troops (forces) in peacetime and war. time.
Originating in ancient times, V.n. has gone through a difficult path of development. During the era of slavery, the first military history appeared. and military theory. works. Based on the study of wars and battles and their analysis, historians, writers, generals, scientists and philosophers Dr. Greece, Dr. Rima and others China created a number of works (descriptions of military campaigns, treatises, manuals), which set out recommendations for the preparation and conduct of wars and battles. Highest value had military works. Chinese theorists - Sunzi, Dr. Greece - Vegetia, Herodotus, Xenophon, Onisander, Polybius, Frontipus, Thucydides.
In the era of feudalism, before the formation of centralization. absolutist states, typical of the West. Europe had limited wars in terms of goals and scale, of which only a few were fought. armies (see Knight's army). This predetermined stagnation in the development of military theory. thoughts. A major step in the development of the military. knowledge was made during the period of the decomposition of feudalism and the emergence of the bourgeoisie. relationships. Among the military. The most prominent theorist of this period is N. Machiavelli, who in his treatise “On the Art of War” (1521) outlined the principles of warfare and the laws of military development. art of his era. In the 16th - 17th centuries. Military regulations are being developed, which reflect the experience of wars and regulate military relations. One of the first charters was created by Moritz of Nassau in the Netherlands. A noticeable mark in the history of the development of fatherland. military theoretical thoughts in this era were left by Ivan Peresvetov, who compiled in the 16th century. for Ivan the Terrible, a program of military reform was carried out by the clerk of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, Onisim Mikhailov (Rodishevsky), who developed in 1607 the “Charter of military, cannon and other matters relating to military science...” (added in 1621). In 1647, by decree of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, “The Teaching and Cunning of the Military Formation of Infantry Men” was published.
At 18 - 1st half. 19th century Russia has put forward talented commanders and naval commanders, such as Peter I, P.S. Saltykov, P.A. Rumyantsev, A.V. Suvorov, M.I. Kutuzov, F.F. Ushakov and others, who made a great contribution to the formation and development of the fatherland. theories and practices of the military and naval forces. lawsuit Peter I developed one of the first fatherland. concepts of preparing the state for war, organization, training and education of Russian. troops and their conduct of military operations. He was the author and editor of a number of military manuals, military theory. and ist. works (see Military Charter 1716, Naval Charter 1720, etc.). Suvorov's "Science of Victory" was the leading theory of military art of its time. In the West During this period, a galaxy of major military figures and theorists appeared in Europe - Napoleon I, A. Jomini, K. Clausewitz, H. Moltke (the Elder), etc.
At the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. Mass armies were created, new weapons appeared and began to be used. combat: tanks, planes, rapid-fire guns, machine guns, submarines. The scale and nature of the military have changed. actions, which led to a new leap in the development of military theory. thoughts. At this time, among the Germans. military The most famous theorists were K. Goltz and A. Schlieffen. In France, military theorist Marshal F. Foch in his works “On the Principles of War”, “On the Conduct of War” and “Memoirs” mainly. in a military way. actions asserted the offensive. English and Amer. theorists (F. Colomb, A. Mahan and others) played a decisive role in weapons. the navy was assigned to the fight. forces and supremacy at sea were considered the fundamental law of war and a necessary condition for victory over the enemy.
In the development of Russian military theoretical 19th century thoughts A significant contribution was made by A.I. Astafiev, G.I. Butakov, M.I. Dragomirov, G.A. Leer, S.O. Makarov, D.A. Milyutin, N.P. Mikhnevich, P.S. Nakhimov. They discarded outdated military theories. views and put forward new concepts, created works that reflected many new phenomena in the military. in fact. In the end 19 - beginning 20th century in Russia, two (the second is incomplete) military encyclopedias were carried out. publications: "Encyclopedia of Military and Naval Sciences" and "Military Encyclopedia", which summarized the theory of military. affairs of that time. In the last of them, in particular, the definition of V.n. was given. and military principles were formulated. claims (see Military Encyclopedias).
1st world. the war served as a new impetus for the development of V.N. It contributed to the discovery of patterns reflecting the dependence of warfare on politics and economics, as well as on the state of the state’s rear. During the war, experience was gained in preparing and conducting fronts. and Armenian will come and defend. operations, as well as mor. operations, organization of combined arms, naval. and air battle. The theory of breaking through positional defenses has received great development. At the same time, the problem of developing a breakthrough into operations has not been fully resolved. and strategist. scale.
In the interwar During this period, multimillion-dollar armies were created, all types of armed forces were developed, with special attention paid to the tank. troops and aviation. Under the influence of widespread motorization of the aircraft in the 20s - 30s. theories of “mechanized (tank) warfare” and “air warfare” appeared, incl. and use of air. landings.
Means. role in the formation and development of V.N. Sov. the states played major owls. scientists, talented military leaders, military specialists. So, M.V. Frunze did a lot to develop theoretical basics of owls military doctrine, general principles of military science, strategy and tactics, structure of the Armed Forces, military training and education. M.N. Tukhachevsky explored the ways of development of the theory of strategy and the main directions of military development. technology. A.I. Egorov and S.S. Kamenev summarized the experience of Citizens. war and formulated a number of recommendations on military. building B.M. Shaposhnikov wrote a fundamental work, “The Brain of the Army,” in which he outlined the fundamentals of the strategist. aircraft control, showed the value of Gen. headquarters for the defense of the country. A.A. Svechin gave an in-depth analysis of the development of strategy and tactics from ancient times to the present day. Fatherland military theoretical the thought also generalized the experience of preparing and conducting modern. operations, on the basis of which in the middle. 30s The theory of deep operation was developed. It was a major achievement of V.N. and received wide practical application in Vel. Fatherland war. The most significant contribution to the development of problems V.N. During these years V.A. also contributed. Alafuzov, Ya.I. Alksnis (Astrov), K.I. Velichko, G.S. Isserson, K.B. Kalinovsky, D.M. Karbyshev, S.N. Krasilnikov, A.N. Lapchinsky, S.A. Mezheninov, V.K. Triandafillov, I.P. Uborevich, E.A. Shilovsky, R.P. Eideman et al.
In the USSR over the years Vel. Fatherland war V.n. has risen to a new stage of development. Development of flexible forms of preparation and conduct of defense. operations followed by a counteroffensive, strategist theory. will come operations, solution to the problem of breakthrough tact. and operator defense with the subsequent encirclement and destruction of large groups of troops, the search for new methods of combat use and interaction of various types of armed forces and branches of the military, the development of such an effective form of fire destruction of the military as art. and aviation offensive, new battle formations, comprehensive support for operations, firm command and control of troops, and much more. other issues made a great contribution to the development of the theory of military art and V.N. in general, and ensured victory over a strong and dangerous pr-com.
After the 2nd world. war V.n. receives further development, which is determined by the growth of scientific and technological. bases, the emergence of new powerful weapons. struggle, primarily nuclear missile weapons and other means of mass destruction. There is a real threat of nuclear war. Under these conditions, V.n. Sov. the state was forced to focus its efforts on research possible ways the initiation and subsequent conduct of such a war by the aggressor. At the same time, finding ways to prevent nuclei was of utmost importance. war.
In the 80s in the USSR, in the 90s. 20th century and beginning 21st century in the Russian Federation the development of military theory. thoughts were aimed at preventing both nuclear and conventional war; development of response measures to repel possible aggression; searching for the most effective ways to build aircraft.
In modern structure of V.n. distinguish: general basics(general theory) V.N., military theories. art, construction of the Armed Forces, military training and education, weapons, control of the Armed Forces, military. economy and logistics, types of armed forces, as well as the corresponding ones. sections of the military. stories. Each of the components of V.n. has its own structure, in which, in addition to the basics of correspondence. branches of knowledge can be divided into several sections (particular theories).
General principles (general theory) V.n. include logical-methodological. and general theoretical problems of V.N.: subject, structure, tasks, internal. and ext. interrelationships V.N.; determination of the system of its categories and methods; study of laws and patterns of weapons. struggle, development of the Armed Forces, other phenomena and processes. Towards new tasks V.N. may include: development of the concept of unconventional wars and armed conflicts, forms and methods of information warfare; tactical and technical justification of requirements for fundamentally new types of weapons; scientific support for the development of automated troop (force) control systems built on the basis of computer networks; further development of the theory of military art; increasing the efficiency of military training on the basis of comprehensive computerization of the educational process in military universities and combat training of troops; improving the forms and methods of comprehensive support for troops; optimization of forms and methods of military scientific research, development of military systemsology, military futurology and other new branches of military science; improving the methodology of V.N.
The theory of military art is part of V.N. and includes theories of strategy, operations. claims and tactics. The theory of strategy explores military strategists. the nature of war, laws, principles and methods of warfare. struggle in strategist. scale. Opera theory. The lawsuit studies the nature, patterns, principles and methods of preparing and conducting general military (general naval) joint and independent. operations (combat operations) operations. ed. types of aircraft. The theory of tactics deals with the preparation and conduct of combat by subunits, units and units. on land, sea and in the air. In accordance with this, it includes the theory of combined arms tactics. combat and theory of tactics of types and branches of the Armed Forces, as well as special. type of troops, with maximum use of the capabilities of new means of armed struggle.
The theory of armed forces construction is the most important component of military development. She examines the problems of maintaining troops and naval forces at a high level of combat readiness to carry out combat missions and to mobilize; determining and improving the most appropriate organization. aircraft structures; defines and justifies the principles and methods of manning aircraft, their technical. equipment, training of reserves; develops military training systems. personnel and their military service. services; prepares recommendations on the organization of troop service and the quartering of troops (forces) in peacetime and war. time, etc.
The theory of military training and education develops the forms and methods of operations. and combat training, the formation of high moral and combat qualities in soldiers, their military education in the process of combat training, military. service, strengthening military discipline, coordinating subdivisions, units (ships) and connections. in order to ensure their high combat effectiveness and combat readiness.
Weapons theory develops scientifically based conclusions and recommendations for carrying out a unified military-technical process. politics in the Armed Forces.
Armed Forces control theory examines the patterns, principles and methods of work of command (commanders, chiefs), headquarters and other control bodies in maintaining constant combat readiness of troops (forces), preparing operations and conducting combat operations, leading troops (forces) in carrying out assigned tasks , as well as in the management of combat training, life and activities of troops (forces) in the world. and military time.
The theory of military economics and logistics of the Armed Forces examines the nature, volume, methods of accumulation and use of material resources necessary to support the activities of the Armed Forces and conduct a predicted war, military. aspects of the country's transition to war. time, ways to increase economic sustainability. complex of the country during the war.
The theory of types and genera of aircraft explores the basics of their preparation and use.
Military history within the boundaries of the subject of V.N. studies the history of wars, military history. thoughts, military claims, history of the construction of the armed forces, weapons and other areas of the military. affairs.
V.n. also associated with society, natural. and tech. sciences, which leads to the separation of military sciences in them. problems and formation of special branches of knowledge aimed at solving problems in the interests of strengthening the country's defense. In the field of societies. sciences, military theory is important for the armed forces. law, military psychology, military pedagogy, etc. Military development. problems in the field of natural sciences. sciences led to the emergence of such military-special sciences as military. geography, military cartography, military geodesy, military topography, military hydrometeorology, military. navigation, military medicine, etc. In the field of technology. sciences, branches of knowledge have emerged, which are called military-technical. sciences. Being in its essence, like all tech. science, applied, they explore technology. problems that are directly or indirectly related to the military. needs. This includes military theories. communications, military radio electronics, military cybernetics, ballistics, shooting, bombing, etc. V.N. and military branches of knowledge (problems) of other sciences can be collectively considered as an interconnected system of knowledge.
“The forties, the fatal ones,” said the famous poet, a participant in the Great Patriotic War, about the first half of the “forties.” But the second half of this decade also turned out to be fatal for the ideological atmosphere of Soviet society. Yudin B.G. Methodological analysis as a direction in the study of science. M., 1986
The price of victory is, of course, the key problem in the history of the War. However, our historiography still reduces the matter only to the meaning of victory. The ideas known from war times, “what is a war without victims”, “war will write off everything”, “winners are not judged”, have not yet been eliminated. Whatever the sacrifices, the great minds of that time expressing their own opinion, which is different from the opinion of the ruling elite, or a simple soldier who gave his life for the future of his homeland, or a simple person in general. And although today it is difficult to convince anyone that there were no gross miscalculations of the leadership of the USSR on the eve and during the war, unjustified repressions against workers in science and the intelligentsia, we often still try to unite good and evil in its history under the lofty words “ heroic and tragic." Science played an exceptional role and the exceptional courage of the army and people, their ability to surpass the enemy in science, technology and the art of war. Until now, the exact number of military personnel killed, scientists who died in the camps, and oppositionists who were shot is unknown. Although during the Great Patriotic War it was science that made a significant contribution to the development of the defense potential of the USSR. In the second half of 1941, 182 corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 76 research institutes, which included 118 academicians and thousands of researchers, were evacuated to the east. Their activities were directed by the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences, relocated to Sverdlovsk. In the city of Sverdlovsk, in May 1942, at the general meeting of the Academy, the tasks facing scientists during the war were discussed. The leading areas of scientific research were the development of military-technical problems, scientific assistance to industry, and the mobilization of raw materials, for which intersectoral commissions and committees were created. Thus, at the end of 1941, a commission was created to mobilize the resources of the Urals, which also oversees the reserves of Siberia and Kazakhstan. The commission was headed by academicians A.A. Baykov, I.P. Bardin, S.G. Strumilin, M.A. Pavlov and others. In close collaboration with engineers, scientists found methods for very fast, one might say high-speed, metal smelting in open-hearth furnaces , casting steel High Quality, obtaining rental of a new standard. Somewhat later, a special commission of scientists headed by Academician E.A. Chudakov made important proposals for mobilizing the resources of the Volga and Kama regions. Thanks to scientific geologists A.E. Fersman, K.I. Satpayev, V.A. Obruchev and other scientists, new deposits were explored iron ore in Kuzbass. New sources of oil were found in Bashkiria, as well as a deposit of molybdenum ores in Kazakhstan. The contribution was significant scientists mathematicians P.S. Alexandrova, S.N. Bernstein, I.M. Vinogradova, N.I. Muskhelishvili. Physicists A.F. worked actively for defense. Ioffe, S.I. Vavilov, P.L. Kapitsa, L.I. Mandelstam, chemists N.D. Zelinsky, I.V. Grebenshchikov, A.N. Nesmeyanov, A.E. Favorsky, N.N. Semenov. Scientists A.P. Aleksandrov, B.A. Gaev, A.R. Regel and others successfully solved the problem of mine protection for ships. In 1943, technology was developed to separate plutonium from irradiated uranium. In the fall of 1944, under the leadership of Academician I.V. Kurchatov, a version of the atomic bomb with a spherical detonation “inside” was created, and at the beginning of 1945 a plutonium production plant was launched. Scientists of the Soviet Union at that time achieved significant successes in the field of biology, medicine and Agriculture. They found new types of plant raw materials for industry and sought ways to increase the productivity of food and industrial crops. Thus, in the eastern regions of the country, the cultivation of sugar beets was urgently mastered. The activities of medical scientists such as N.N. were of great importance. Burdenko, A.N. Bakuleva, L.A. Orbeli, A.I. Abrikosov, including S.S. Yudin and A.V. Vishnevsky and others, who introduced into practice new methods and means of treating sick and wounded soldiers. V.K.Modestov, Doctor of Medical Sciences, made a number of important defense inventions, including the replacement of absorbent cotton wool with cellulose, the use of turbine oil as a base for the manufacture of ointments and other materials. A necessary condition for successful development National economy the country was the continuous training of new personnel in universities and technical schools. In 1941, the number of universities decreased from 817 thousand to 460 thousand, their enrollment was halved, the number of students decreased by 3.5 times, and the duration of study ranged from 3 to 3.5 years. However, by the end of the war, the number of students, especially as a result of the admission of women, increased and approached the pre-war level. Yudin B.G. Methodological analysis as a direction in the study of science. M., 1986.
During the war years, although it was very difficult, the creators of weapons and military equipment worked fruitfully. Particular attention was paid to improving the quality of artillery systems and mortars. In this area, great credit belongs to scientists and designers V.G. Grabin, I.I. Ivanov, M.Ya. Krupchatnikov, and others. Successes in the production of small arms were achieved with the leading role of designers N. E. Berezin, V. A. Degtyarev, S. G. Simonov, F. V. Tokarev, G. S. Shpagin. Soviet scientists also managed to reduce the time required for the development and implementation of new weapons by many times. Thus, the 152nd howitzer, which has proven itself well, was designed and manufactured in 1943 in 18 days, and its mass production was mastered in 1.5 months. Where has this been seen! About half of all types small arms and the overwhelming number of new models of artillery systems in service with the active army in 1945 were created and launched in series during the war. The calibers of tank and anti-tank artillery have almost doubled, and the armor penetration of shells has increased approximately 5 times. The USSR exceeded Germany in terms of average annual production of field artillery by more than 2 times, mortars by 5 times, anti-tank guns by 2.6 times. Through the efforts of Soviet tank builders, especially the workers and engineers of the Ural “Tankograd”, the enemy’s advantage in armored vehicles was relatively quickly overcome. By 1943, the superiority of the Soviet Armed Forces in tanks and self-propelled artillery began to increase. Domestic tanks and self-propelled guns were significantly superior to their foreign counterparts in their combat characteristics. Enormous credit for their creation belonged to N.A. Astrov, N.L. Dukhov, Zh. Ya. Kotin, M. I. Koshkin, V.V. Krylov, N.A. Kucherenko, A.A. Morozov, L.S. Troyanov and others. From the second half of 1942, the production of aircraft and aircraft engines steadily increased. The most popular aircraft of the Soviet Air Force was the Il-2 attack aircraft. Most Soviet combat aircraft were superior in performance to those of the German Air Force. During the war, 25 aircraft models (including modifications), as well as 23 types of aircraft engines, entered mass production. Aircraft designers, M.I., contributed to the creation and improvement of new combat vehicles. Gurevich, S.V. Ilyushin, S.A. Lavochkin, A.I. Mikoyan, V.M. Myasishchev, V.M. Petlyakov, N.N. Polikarpov, P.O. Sukhoi, A.N. Tupolev, A.S. Yakovlev, creators of aircraft engines, V. Ya. Klimov, A. A. Mikulin, S. K. Tumansky.
Retired Major General I.N. Vorobyov Doctor of Military Sciences, Professor
Colonel V.A. Kiselev Doctor of Military Sciences, Professor
In recent years, a number of articles devoted to issues of military science have been published in the pages of the magazine “Military Thought”. Noteworthy is the conclusion made by Professor Major General S.A. Tyushkevich that “the state of our military science does not fully meet modern requirements...”. The military philosopher G.P. Belokonev expressed his agreement with this conclusion in the article “Philosophy and Military Science”. Unfortunately, the authors did not sufficiently justify their thesis, and most importantly, did not put forward constructive proposals on what should be done to solve this problem. Agreeing in principle with the opinion of the authors, we would like to express our opinions on this issue.
The main reason that domestic military science, starting from the 90s of the last century, began to decline and lose its prestige as the most advanced military science in the world was that military construction in the country, military service, military history, and Also, the methodological basis of military science - dialectical materialism - was subjected to the most acute ideological abstractionism, and in some cases - falsification. Centuries-old traditions The Russian state was simply ignored when implementing military reform. Negative consequences Such policies were immediately reflected in a sharp decline in the combat effectiveness of the Armed Forces, a decrease in funding for the military budget, and a decline in the prestige of military service. This most noticeably affected the conduct of two Chechen military campaigns.
In current conditions, military science is in the stage of “catch-up development”. We are now talking about its revival, increasing its role and place in the system of other social sciences, clearly defining tasks in ensuring the defense security of the state and preparing the Armed Forces for armed struggle, developing new forms and methods of conducting it.
It is important to note that in Lately The country's military leadership strives to raise the status of military science and intensify research and theoretical activities scientific organizations Ministry of Defense and ensure proactive scientific and practical study of the most important problems in the field of military and military-technical policy in the interests of strengthening the national defense of the state.
Former Minister of Defense, now First Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Federation S.B. Ivanov, speaking on January 24, 2004 at the military-scientific conference of the Academy of Military Sciences, emphasized that “the further development of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, the creation of a professional army of the 21st century is impossible without military science , standing at the height of the most modern requirements". Further, S.B. Ivanov stated: “We must admit that to date, military science has not identified a clear generalized type of modern war and armed conflict... The task of military science today is to reveal their general patterns, so that it becomes possible to reasonably predict the nature of future wars and effective planning» .
It is positive that military science is becoming a state priority. At the same time, it is important that this is supported by the allocation of the necessary financial resources to strengthen the military-industrial complex, the conduct of promising research projects, the training of military scientific personnel and the publication of works on general theoretical and methodological
problems of military science, including foreign publications on military topics.
At the present stage, military science is faced with increasingly complex tasks. This is due to the fact that the main object of her research - war, like a chameleon, is increasingly changing its strategic appearance, and therefore becomes difficult to predict. Recently, the term “wrong” wars has even appeared in the press in contrast to established views on “classical” wars. Yes, indeed, if we take the two wars against Iraq (1991 and 2003), then by their nature, methods of warfare, and types of weapons used, they do not fit into the prevailing stereotypes. It turns out that military practice has begun to outstrip military theory and military science is beginning to lose its main function as a “spotlight” of military events, which, of course, cannot be accepted.
Life and the practice of military development urgently require that military science make sufficiently accurate and substantiated forecasts in the range of 15-20 or more years in the future, answer questions about what an armed struggle, operation, battle might be technologically; how the content of military-political, military-economic and military-technical factors will change, their influence on the forms and methods of military action; what requirements must the composition, organization and technical equipment of the Armed Forces, forms and methods of troop command and control in peacetime and wartime meet? how it is necessary to prepare the population and mobilize resources for war.
Military-historical experience has shown that military science could rise in its development to a qualitatively new level, develop correct long-term guidelines for military development, military doctrine, and not only keep up with scientific and technological progress, but also get ahead of it when it relied on time-tested philosophical and methodological basis – dialectical materialism. In this regard, it is appropriate to cite the judgment of A.A. Svechin: “Dialectics cannot be expelled from the use of strategic thought, since it constitutes its essence.”
It is precisely by relying on dialectical principles, a system of known laws and patterns inherent in war, that military science is able to “look” far ahead and play the role of a “seer” in military development. Now, when more and more new concepts are appearing, the so-called non-contact, remote, robotic, aerospace, situational, transcontinental wars, the creative function of military science is especially important. The emergence of new views on the nature of the armed struggle of the future at the present stage is naturally inevitable, just as on the eve of the Second World War new theories of air warfare (Douai), mechanized wars with small professional armies (Fuller, Mitchell, Seeckt, de Gaulle) appeared, which, although not were suddenly justified, but foreshadowed future changes in the methods of warfare. They were partially adopted by the Nazi army.
The great seer K.E. Tsiolkovsky wrote: “Fulfillment is preceded by thought, accurate calculation fantasy". Nowadays, it no longer seems fantastic to realize such technical “super projects” as wireless energy transmission; control of gravitational systems, and consequently, the creation of gravitational weapons; creating an engine from ceramics, “cybernetic” organisms, a train “floating” through the air; the search for psychotropic devices that allow “control” of thoughts, acoustic generators that disrupt brain functions; high-power microwave energy emitters to detonate ammunition before it is used; combustion inhibitors; chemical substances, making metal brittle; microbes that turn fuel into jelly; “suction” foam, non-lethal weapons, etc.
Assessing how these and many other technological discoveries will affect the development of forms and methods of military action is the primary task of futurological forecasts. Extrapolating the directions of development of armed struggle, the following leading trends can be identified: further integration of the combat use of armed forces in all spatial spheres - on continents, seas, oceans, under water, in the air, near-Earth airspace, near, middle and deep space; increasing complexity of conditions, methods of unleashing and waging both large-scale and local wars and armed conflicts with and without the use of weapons with unlimited strategic capabilities; the likelihood of conducting fleeting, but extremely intense, decisive and dynamic military operations; strengthening the role of information warfare; further aggravation of contradictions between means of attack and defense; transformation of forceful and non-forceful forms of struggle with a shift in the center of gravity to non-traditional types using the strategy of “indirect actions”.
Military science of the 21st century should be a science of divination, unacceptable to dogmas, immutable canons, and at the same time based on the experience acquired by previous generations, developed methodological principles, such as purposefulness and non-stereotypical search; logical sequence of research; consistency; prospects; the validity of the results obtained; objectivity of conclusions; historicity.
In general terms, the goal of the prognostic study is to determine the fundamental guidelines for transformative military-theoretical and practical activities, the formation of asymmetric military policy, planning for long-term military development, and the development of new concepts for the use of armed forces based on new high technologies. The transition from the mechanized wars of industrial society to the intellectual, information wars of the technological era presupposes the need to develop a new strategy, a new operational art and new tactics future using electromagnetic (super EMP, laser weapons, radiation of a certain frequency affecting nervous system humans), acoustic, gravitational and other types of weapons, including those based on new physical principles. The effectiveness of forecasting armed struggle in the technological era depends on the depth of discovery of its new patterns, the ability to correctly use and model them, on the completeness of the disclosure of new factors influencing the forms and methods of conducting non-contact, remote warfare, identifying their relationship, extrapolating trends, and using correlative analysis.
Characteristic of the past gradual evolutionary process The technologization of armed struggle is now giving way to not just a rapid, but a spasmodic renewal of its material basis. But if the base is radically modernized in the shortest possible time, then the superstructure - the forms and methods of military action - must undergo corresponding transformations. In practice, this means the possibility of the emergence of atypical wars - gravitational, robotic, cybernetic, space and other wars. Thus, the appearance on the “chessboard” of strategy of such a revolutionary factor as space radically changes the idea of future armed clashes without the participation of massive ground armies.
The hypothesis is that the use of third-generation orbital combat systems capable of hitting objects not only in space, but also from space using the entire “Star Wars” arsenal - from combat space stations (platforms) to aerospace aircraft and reusable spaceships gives reason to expect in the future the emergence of space operations in the near-Earth airspace to destroy nuclear attack weapons in flight, blockade outer space, defeat orbital and ground-based space groups, capture and hold important areas of near-Earth space, and suppress the radio systems of orbital ground-based groups. The ability of space assets to hit basic military targets anywhere on the planet gives armed confrontation a volume-global character. This means that there will be no inaccessible places in the disposition of the warring parties for space and other means of destruction, which means that the concepts of front and rear, operational lines and flanks will lose their former meaning.
From what has been considered, it logically follows that to create a model of the operation of the future means to create a physical, mental or combined analogue of such an operation that would reflect the experience of the past and new patterns of military operations taking into account the development of weapons and military equipment.
Nowadays, more and more attention is paid to the study of methods of information warfare, which is expected to result in independent form struggle along with economic, political, ideological, diplomatic, armed and other forms of struggle. Based on the experience of local wars, the United States, since the 80s, has been making intensive efforts to improve information technology. Thus, out of 22 critical strategic-level technologies identified for the future, 12, i.e. more than half relate directly to computer science. It is characteristic that the total share of expenditures in the budget of the US Department of Defense on control, communications, intelligence, electronic warfare and computerization systems reached 20% in the 90s of the last century compared to 7% in the 80s and now continues to increase.
The principles of information warfare are: secrecy, sophistication; systematic; activity; variety of techniques; credibility; selectivity; knowledge of the enemy’s psychology, reflective control of his behavior; preempting the enemy. The components of such a fight can be: information blockade, counterintelligence activities, electronic suppression of enemy combat control systems; conducting an electronic fire information-strike operation; a combination of fire, radio-electronic and massive information and psychological influence on the enemy.
In the United States, information warfare is considered as one of the ways of waging a so-called “controlled war” (R. Kann), when the strongest side, through information influence, dictates its will to the enemy without the use of weapons. Forceful actions in such a confrontation are envisaged at the final phase of action, if political, diplomatic and other possibilities for “bloodless crushing” of the enemy state are exhausted. What is new when conducting a complex information-strike operation, based on the experience of local wars, is that the massive use of the latest radio-electronic means, setting up radio screens, radio interference, creating a false radio-electronic situation, simulating false radio networks, radio blockade of channels for collecting and processing enemy information are combined with the conduct of an air-ground operation, the launch of sea-based cruise missiles, the actions of reconnaissance-strike and reconnaissance-fire complexes, remote-controlled and manned vehicles.
The predictiveness of military science largely depends on the improvement of research methods that make it possible to obtain, systematize and analyze knowledge, make generalizations, conclusions, conclusions and verify their truth. However, it should be noted that the methods developed to date impose fundamental limitations on the ability to forecast both in the time range and in the range of forecast objects. The fact is that all factors influencing armed struggle are amenable to predictive assessments. Hence, the maximum possible lead time for a forecast of a given accuracy in armed struggle is still small. The deviation of the forecast from the actual state of the object can be very significant. Based on this, it is important to improve the methodology of military scientific research, which would ensure the interconnectedness and subordination of forecasts different levels hierarchy of the forecast object (war, operation, battle, combat), continuity of the research process, consistency of various types of forecasts; identifying emerging contradictions and ways to resolve them, adjusting the obtained forecast results.
Arsenal modern methods Military science research is extensive - these are, first of all, general scientific methods: intuitive-logical, logical, historical, heuristic, extrapolations, system analysis, mathematical modeling, empirical, probability theory, factor analysis, “goal tree” method, etc. The peculiarity of human intelligence, as N. Wiener notes, is that the human brain has the ability to “operate” with vaguely defined concepts. This gives him the opportunity to decide on complexity logic problems, create, anticipate, discover new things. At one time, great hopes were placed on the use of cybernetic and mathematical modeling methods, the use of electronic computer technology for collecting, processing and analyzing information in the forecasting process. However, hopes were only partially realized.
And yet, despite certain prognostic shifts, the “barrier of the unknown” in military affairs could not be overcome with the help of new methods. The greatest successes in forecasting have been achieved in those areas that are relatively easy to quantify (the development of weapons systems, determining the combat potential of force groups, the military-economic capabilities of the parties, calculating the balance of forces, etc.) and, conversely, where it is necessary to operate with qualitative With indicators and concepts that form the core of forecasting armed struggle, the “far-sightedness” of military theory is still limited.
Specific research methods of military science require improvement, such as research and experimental military, aviation and naval exercises, research command and staff exercises, war games and maneuvers that are carried out to solve problems of strategy, operational art and tactics, issues of building armed forces, improving combat and mobilization readiness, organizational structure, equipping troops with weapons and military equipment. Scientific and methodological improvement of ongoing exercises and war games using computer technology is one of the important areas of predictive research. Many unsolved problems arise before military science in the field of developing the theory of building the Armed Forces, maintaining them in readiness, ensuring reliable protection states from any aggression. The sharp deterioration of the geostrategic position of the state after the collapse of the USSR, the lack of infrastructure on the land border in many directions and at the same time the reduction to a minimum of the Armed Forces, especially the Ground Forces, require the development of new approaches in determining the organizational structure of formations, formations and units, the system of organization and methods of recruitment, organization and services, creations necessary supplies material resources. We believe that the main thing on which the aircraft construction system should be based is on the principle of strategic mobility, their ability, if available disabilities respond flexibly to emerging crises by quickly maneuvering forces and means to threatened areas.
The solution to the problems of military science is also inextricably linked with the development of theories of military training and education, the theory of military economics, the theory of weapons, the theory of command and control of the Armed Forces, the theory of the branches and logistics of the Armed Forces, in which many unresolved issues have accumulated related to changes in the ideology and policy of the state. Within the framework of the article, it is not possible to even briefly touch on these issues, especially since a detachment of highly qualified military scientists of the Academy of Military Sciences, headed by the President of the Academy, Army General M.A. Gareev, is working on their solution. I would like to note that the recommendations of military scientists, mostly honored veterans of the Armed Forces, do not remain a “voice crying in the desert” and are heard by the leadership of the Ministry of Defense, so that we do not return to the ever-memorable times of the 30s of the last century, when military theory developed itself, and the practice of military development in itself. We must honor military history and draw instructive lessons from it. It is known that the present stands firmly on the shoulders of the past. Of course, history is not able to provide answers to the problems of today, it cannot open the veil of the future, but historical experience is able to inspire creative thought, prompt reflection, expand knowledge, general horizons, and warn against possible mistakes. Nowadays, military science is faced with the task of protecting Russian military history from falsifications and unfounded attacks. There are especially many ill-wishers inside the country to discredit the holy of holies - the feat of the Soviet people in the Great Patriotic War, and to debunk the military leadership of Soviet military leaders.
Russia, perhaps like no other country in the world, has a rich military history. The unprecedented exploits of our ancestors, who throughout the thousand-year history of Russia had to fight for the preservation and establishment of their statehood, are now hushed up, or even distorted, in history textbooks in secondary schools.
It is striking that on the ideological front, our state is now taking a defensive position, as if justifying itself for the fact that the Soviet Armed Forces in World War II had to liberate the peoples of Eastern Europe and the Baltic states from the fascist yoke, and after the war, fight against Bandera in Western Ukraine, "forest brothers" in the Baltic states.
One of the authors of the article had to begin his military service in the pre-war period, being a cadet of the newly created in 1940. in Estonia at the Tallinn Military Infantry School, and subsequently during the war to participate in hostilities - for the liberation of the Baltic states in 1944-1945. from the fascist invaders. I must testify with what kindness, one might say thrift, we, Soviet soldiers, treated the local population - Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians during the war. And now it becomes extremely unfair and offensive how the leadership of the Baltic states responds with black ingratitude, calling us, the liberating soldiers, occupiers and equating us with the fascist executioners - the SS men. The actions of the Estonian authorities over the monument – the “bronze” Soviet soldier – can be called nothing less than an outrage against the fallen Soviet soldiers.
In conclusion of the article, we would like to express our concerns about the current state of our military science. For more than ten years now, military theoretical works, textbooks and teaching aids on tactics, so necessary not only for military students and cadets of military educational institutions, but also for students of civilian universities, students of secondary schools, and ROSTO organizations, have not been published. The experience of combat and operational training does not become an asset even for military academies and military schools, since combat training newsletters are not published, as in the old days. For many years now, the works of military classics and modern foreign military scientists have not been published. It must also be said that candidates and doctors of military sciences do not have any privileges and are dismissed from military service, like all officers of the Armed Forces upon reaching the so-called “limiting” age. And it is especially bitter and offensive that such lampoons against our country, army and navy like “Icebreaker” by the traitor to the Motherland Rezun fill bookstore shelves in millions of copies. We regard this as one of the manifestations of information warfare.
