GP of tropical Africa. Tropical and southern Africa (black Africa)
SUBREGIONS OF AFRICA
The economic regionalization of Africa has not yet taken shape. In educational and scientific literature, it is usually divided into two large natural and cultural-historical subregions: North Africa and Tropical Africa (or “Sub-Saharan Africa”). Tropical Africa, in turn, is divided into Western, Central, Eastern and Southern Africa.
North Africa. Total area North Africa- about 10 million km 2, population - 170 million people. The position of the subregion is primarily determined by its Mediterranean “façade”, thanks to which North Africa actually neighbors Southern Europe and South-West Asia and has access to the main sea route from Europe to Asia. The “rear” of the region is formed by the sparsely populated areas of the Sahara.
North Africa is the cradle of ancient Egyptian civilization, whose contribution to world culture is already known to you. In ancient times, Mediterranean Africa was considered the granary of Rome; traces of underground drainage galleries and other structures can still be found among the lifeless sea of sand and stone. Many coastal cities trace their origins to ancient Roman and Carthaginian settlements. The Arab colonization of the 7th-12th centuries had a huge impact on the ethnic composition of the population, its culture, religion and way of life. North Africa is still called Arab today: almost its entire population speaks Arabic and professes Islam.
The economic life of North Africa is concentrated in the coastal zone. Here are the main centers of manufacturing industry, the main areas of subtropical agriculture, including on irrigated lands. Naturally, almost the entire population of the region is concentrated in this zone. IN rural areas adobe houses predominate flat roofs and earthen floors. The cities also have a very characteristic appearance. Therefore, geographers and ethnographers distinguish a special, Arabic city type, which, like other eastern cities, is characterized by its division into two parts - old and new.
The core of the old part of the city is usually the kasbah - a fortification (citadel) located on an elevated place. The Kasbah is surrounded in a tight ring by other quarters of the old city, built up with low houses with flat roofs and blank courtyard fences. Their main attraction is the colorful oriental bazaars. All this old town, often surrounded by protective walls, is called a medina, which means “city” in Arabic. Already outside the medina there is a new, modern part of the city.
All these contrasts are most pronounced in the largest cities, the appearance of which acquires not only national, but also cosmopolitan features. Probably, first of all, this applies to Cairo - the capital and largest city of Egypt, an important political, cultural and religious center of everything Arab world. Cairo is uniquely located where the narrow Nile Valley meets the fertile Delta, a major cotton-growing region where the world's best long-staple cotton is grown. Herodotus also called this region a delta, who noted that its configuration resembles the ancient Greek letter delta. In 1969, Cairo celebrated its 1000th anniversary.
The southern part of the subregion is very sparsely populated. The agricultural population is concentrated in oases, where the main consumer and cash crop is date palm. The rest of the territory, and even then not all of it, is inhabited only by nomadic camel breeders, and in the Algerian and Libyan parts of the Sahara there are oil and gas fields.
Only along the Nile Valley does a narrow “strip of life” wedge itself into the desert kingdom far to the south. Very great value for the development of the entire Upper Egypt, the Aswan hydroelectric complex on the Nile was built with the economic and technical assistance of the USSR.
Tropical Africa. The total area of Tropical Africa is more than 20 million km 2, the population is 650 million people. It is also called “black Africa”, since the population of the subregion overwhelmingly belongs to the equatorial (Negroid) race. But the ethnic composition of individual parts of Tropical Africa differs quite greatly. It is most complex in West and East Africa, where at the junction of different races and language families the greatest “strip” of ethnic and political borders has arisen. The people of Central and Southern Africa speak numerous (with up to 600 dialects) but closely related languages of the Bantu family (the word means "people"). The Swahili language is especially widespread. And the population of Madagascar speaks languages of the Austronesian family.
There is also much in common in the economy and population settlement of the countries of Tropical Africa. Tropical Africa is the most backward part of the entire developing world, with 29 least developed countries within its borders. Nowadays, this is the only large region of the world where agriculture remains the main sphere of material production.
About half of the rural residents practice subsistence agriculture, the rest engage in subsistence farming. Hoe tillage predominates with the almost complete absence of a plow; It is no coincidence that the hoe, as a symbol of agricultural labor, is included in the image of the state emblems of a number of African countries. All major agricultural work is performed by women and children. They cultivate root and tuber crops (cassava or cassava, yam, sweet potato), from which they make flour, cereals, cereals, flatbreads, as well as millet, sorghum, rice, corn, bananas, and vegetables. Livestock farming is much less developed, including due to the tsetse fly, and if it plays a significant role (Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia), it is carried out extremely extensively. In the equatorial forests there are tribes, and even nationalities, that still live by hunting, fishing and gathering. In the savannah and humid areas tropical forests The basis of consumer farming is the fallow-type slash-and-burn system.
Areas of commercial crop production with a predominance of perennial plantings - cocoa, coffee, peanuts, hevea, oil palm, tea, sisal, and spices - stand out sharply against the general background. Some of these crops are cultivated on plantations, and some on peasant farms. They primarily determine the monocultural specialization of a number of countries.
According to their main occupation, the majority of the population of Tropical Africa lives in rural areas. Savannas are dominated by large villages near rivers, while tropical forests are dominated by small villages.
The life of the villagers is closely connected with the subsistence farming they lead. Among them, local traditional beliefs are widespread: the cult of ancestors, fetishism, belief in nature spirits, magic, witchcraft, and various talismans. Africans believe that the spirits of the dead remain on earth, that the spirits of ancestors strictly monitor the actions of the living and can harm them if any traditional commandment is violated. Christianity and Islam, introduced from Europe and Asia, also became quite widespread in Tropical Africa.
Tropical Africa is the least industrialized region of the world (not counting Oceania). There is only one fairly large mining area that has developed here - the Copper Belt in Congo (formerly Zaire) and Zambia.
Tropical Africa is the least urbanized region of the world. Only eight of its countries have “millionaire” cities, which usually tower over numerous provincial towns like lonely giants. Examples of this kind include Dakar in Senegal, Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nairobi in Kenya, Luanda in Angola.
Tropical Africa also lags behind in the development of its transport network. Its pattern is determined by “penetration lines” isolated from each other, leading from the ports to the hinterland. In many countries railways are absent at all. It is customary to carry small loads on the head, and over a distance of up to 30-40 km.
Finally, environmental quality is rapidly deteriorating in sub-Saharan Africa. It was here that desertification, deforestation, and depletion of flora and fauna assumed the most alarming proportions. Example. The main area of drought and desertification is the Sahel zone, which stretches along the southern borders of the Sahara from Mauritania to Ethiopia across ten countries. In 1968-1974. Not a single rain fell here, and the Sahel turned into a scorched earth zone. In the first half and mid-80s. catastrophic droughts recurred. They claimed millions of human lives. The number of livestock has decreased greatly.
What happened in this area began to be called the “Sahel tragedy.” But it is not only nature that is to blame. The onset of the Sahara is facilitated by overgrazing of livestock and destruction of forests, primarily for firewood.
In some countries of Tropical Africa, measures are being taken to protect flora and fauna and national parks are being created. This primarily applies to Kenya, where international tourism income is second only to coffee exports.
Problems and tests on the topic "Subregions of Africa"
- African States - Africa Grade 7
Lessons: 3 Assignments: 9 Tests: 1
- Tests: 1
Leading ideas: show the diversity of cultural worlds, models of economic and political development, interconnection and interdependence of countries around the world; and also be convinced of the need for a deep understanding of the laws of social development and the processes that occur in the world.
Basic concepts: Western European (North American) type of transport system, port-industrial complex, "development axis", metropolitan region, industrial belt, "false urbanization", latifundia, ship stations, megalopolis, "technopolis", "growth pole", "growth corridors"; colonial type sectoral structure, monoculture, apartheid, subregion.
Skills and abilities: be able to assess the influence of EGP and GGP, the history of settlement and development, characteristics of the population and labor resources of the region, country on the sectoral and territorial structure of the economy, the level economic development, role in the MGRT of the region, country; identify problems and forecast development prospects for the region and country; highlight specific, defining features of individual countries and explain them; find similarities and differences in the population and economy of individual countries and give an explanation for them, draw up and analyze maps and cartograms.
1. Using the map of peoples, determine the ethnic composition of the population of Tropical Africa.
In terms of ethnic diversity, the African region in question is second only to Asia. There are several hundred peoples here belonging to the large Negroid race. The largest of them are the Yoruba, Hausa, Fulbe, Ibo in West Africa, Amhara in Ethiopia, etc. Closely related Bantu peoples live in Central Africa.
2. What is the past of the countries of Tropical Africa?
In the recent past, all countries in this subregion were possessions of European powers (France, Germany, Belgium, Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, Italy). The process of decolonization of Africa began after the Second World War. Only since the 60s. XX century the formation of their state sovereignty began. The year of Africa - the year of liberation the largest number colonies - was declared 1960.
3. What are the features of the nature of the countries in the region?
The natural conditions of the region are so diverse that they cannot be assessed unambiguously. Thus, the relief is generally favorable for the economic development of the territory, but in most of it climatic conditions and uneven distribution water resources negatively affect people's lives and their economic activity. Large areas are occupied by arid regions, and vast areas are subject to periodic droughts (the Sahel zone south of the Sahara, some areas in Southern and Eastern Africa). In the equatorial belt, the amount of precipitation is so high that excessive moisture complicates the economic development of the territory. The nature of Africa is characterized by increased environmental vulnerability. Unlike the Asian and American tropics, where intensive agricultural systems developed, ultimately leading to the formation of stable cultural landscapes, in tropical Africa the centuries-old practice of fallow farming and pastoralism led to extremely negative anthropogenic changes in local landscapes.
4. What demographic problems are facing the countries of Tropical Africa?
By pace natural increase The population of Tropical Africa is ahead of all other regions of the world. The population dynamics of Tropical Africa is characterized by an exceptionally high birth rate - sometimes more than 30%. Only in the second half of the 20th century. Africa's population has more than tripled, leading to a sharp worsening of food and other social problems.
Many countries in Tropical Africa inherited from colonial times a discrepancy between state and ethnic borders; many closely related peoples found themselves “cut off” by state borders. The region ranks first in the world for illiteracy, has the highest infant mortality rate and the shortest life expectancy.
5. What are the specific features of the economies of the countries in the region?
In terms of economic structure, most countries are agricultural, some have developed mining industries, and only a few are developing manufacturing industries. When talking about the geography of the economy, one should keep in mind a few relatively developed territories - metropolitan regions, places of extraction and export of mineral raw materials.
The leading branch of agriculture is farming, which in many countries is monocultural in nature, associated with specialization primarily in one crop. Livestock farming, occupying one of the first places in the world in terms of livestock numbers, is characterized by extensiveness, low productivity and low marketability.
One of the reasons for the backwardness of agriculture is archaic agrarian relations. Communal land tenure and subsistence farming are preserved here, which are slowly transforming into small-scale peasant farming.
6. Why is agriculture in the countries of Tropical Africa monocultural?
The monocultural nature of agriculture in the countries of Tropical Africa is a direct consequence of their colonial past, in which it satisfied the specific food needs of the metropolises.
7. What explains the diversified nature of the South African economy?
The development of a diversified industry was facilitated by the exceptional wealth of mineral resources (gold, diamonds, uranium ore, platinum, etc.). Only 15% of South Africa's area is suitable for agriculture. However, it can be said that, unlike most other countries in Africa, where soil erosion occurs, this 15% is used wisely - in order to protect soils and efficiently conduct agriculture, advanced agricultural technologies from South Africa and leading countries of the world are used. Compared to other African countries, South Africa has a developed transport network. External transportation is carried out through major seaports - Durban, Port Elizabeth, Cape Town, which are connected by railways.
8. The national composition of the countries of Tropical Africa is different:
a) relative homogeneity; b) extreme diversity.
9. Determine which statements apply to the countries of Tropical Africa:
1) The region includes most of the world's least developed countries.
2) The leading industry is the automotive industry.
3) Large areas are occupied by arid regions.
4) The region is rich in mineral resources.
5) Rail transport is developed in the region.
b) The food problem is pressing for the countries of the region.
All except 2 and 5.
11. Give the economic and geographical characteristics of South Africa. To do this, use the text of the textbook, atlas maps, and periodical materials.
The Republic of South Africa is a state in the southern part of the African continent. In the north it borders with Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe, in the northeast - with Mozambique and Swaziland. Inside the territory of South Africa there is the enclave state of Lesotho.
South Africa is the most developed African continent and at the same time the only country that is not classified as a Third World. GDP in 2009 amounted to $505 billion (26th place in the world). GDP growth was at 5%, in 2008 - 3%. The country is still not among the developed countries of the world, despite the fact that its market is actively expanding. In terms of purchasing power parity, it ranks 78th in the world according to the IMF (Russia 53rd), according to the World Bank 65th, according to the CIA 85th. Has a huge reserve natural resources. Telecommunications, electricity, and the financial sector are widely developed.
Main import items: oil, food, chemicals; exports: diamonds, gold, platinum, machinery, vehicles, equipment. Imports ($91 billion in 2008) exceed exports ($86 billion in 2008).
Member of the international organization of ACP countries.
Sub-Saharan Africa is usually divided into three broad stripes that cross the continent: Sudan, Tropical Africa, and South Africa. The northern border of Tropical Africa runs approximately along the 5th parallel of northern latitude, the southern border along the river. Zambezi, from the mouth to Victoria Falls, and further west, to the mouth of the river. Kunene. From a physical-geographical point of view, the identification of this strip is extremely arbitrary. The climatic zone characteristic of this strip does not coincide with the indicated boundaries; The tropical forest is taking over the Guinean coast of Sudan. But from an ethnographic point of view, these boundaries have a solid justification. The fifth parallel is the northern border of the Bantu-speaking peoples; beyond it begins the region of the Sudanese peoples, in many respects completely different from the Bantu.
Africa south of the Zambezi is inhabited, like Tropical Africa, mainly by tribes and peoples who also speak Bantu languages, but these are mainly pastoralists, while the Bantu of Tropical Africa are predominantly or even exclusively farmers. These are not state boundaries, but ethnic ones, and like any ethnic boundaries, they are to a certain extent arbitrary.
Tropical Africa is in turn divided into two geographically and ethnographically distinct parts: Eastern and Western. Western Tropical Africa is the river basin. Congo; this is a huge basin, the central part of which is covered tropical forest, passing on the outskirts of the basin into a park savannah. Eastern Tropical Africa is a mountain plateau with deep fault valleys and high mountains; this is a savannah, or dry steppe, turning in places into a semi-desert. Both parts are inhabited by Bantu tribes, but the Bantu of the western part are engaged exclusively in agriculture and hunting, and the Bantu of the eastern part combine agriculture with cattle breeding. Before European colonization, the Bantu of the western part developed independently, experiencing no external influence. On the contrary, the shores of eastern Africa were visited by Greek and Arab traders in very distant times. The influence of Arabs, Persians, and partly Indians is reflected in many features of the Bantu culture of East Africa. The Bantu peoples of the region of lakes Victoria, Albert, Kivu and others assimilated Nilotic and partly Cushitic tribes of cattle breeders who came from the north.
The dividing line between the western and eastern Bantus runs approximately along the line of lakes Edward, Kivu, Tanganyika and then approximately 30° east. d.
The physical and geographical appearance of Eastern Tropical Africa is characterized by extreme diversity of relief and landscape, which is not repeated anywhere else in Africa. Overall it is a plateau, most of which lies above 1000 m above sea level. The lowland strip, narrow in its middle part and reaching a width of 300-400 km in the north and south, is located only along the coast of the Indian Ocean. The Great and Western fault valleys stretch across the entire plateau in the meridional direction. The Great Fault Valley begins at the Red Sea, crosses Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanganyika, Nyasalendi ends at the Zambezi. At the bottom of this valley there are lakes, of which the most significant are Lakes Rudolf and Nyasa. From the northern end of the lake. Nyasa leaves the Western fault valley; at its bottom lie lakes Tanganyika (after Baikal - the deepest lake in the world), Kivu, as well as Edward and Albert^ rivers connected to each other. Semliki. Between the highlands of these two valleys is located the largest lake in Africa - Victoria, second in area (68 thousand km 2) only to the Caspian Sea and Lake Superior in North America. Near the deep depressions of the lakes are the highest mountains of the mainland: Kilimanjaro (6010 m), Kenya (5195 m), Rwenzori (5100 m), etc.
The continent's two largest rivers, the Nile and the Congo, originate in Eastern Tropical Africa. Source of the Nile, r. Kagera is born in the mountains northeast of the lake. Tanganyika, at an altitude of 2120 m above sea level. It flows into the lake. Victoria, from which it flows under the name Quivira, forming the Ripon Falls immediately after its exit. Further on the river passes the lake. Kyoga and behind the Murchison Falls (about 40 m high) flows into the lake. Albert and then flows due north. On the border of Rhodesia and Tanganyika, one of the sources of the river originates. Congo - r. Chambesi, which flows into the lake. Bangweolo. Flowing from it, this river receives the name Luapula; in its further course it merges with the Lua Laba and forms the Congo. The third of Africa's largest rivers, the Zambezi, flows along the southern border of Northern Rhodesia, crossing Mozambique. Other significant rivers in this part of the continent include the Ruvuma, Rufiji with its tributary Ruaha, Pangani and Tana. There are a lot of smaller rivers, and almost all of them flow from west to east, to the Indian Ocean. Navigation is possible only on some rivers. The river is navigable along its entire length. Shire, connecting the lake. Nyasa with the lower reaches of the Zambezi and the ocean. A huge waterway of southern Africa, the Zambezi is navigable only in certain areas between the rapids; along the river Tana small steamships can rise 100 km from the mouth. Water transport is now widely developed only on lakes.
The diversity of the relief corresponds to the diversity of climate and vegetation. On the peaks of Kilimanjaro, Kenya and Rwenzori there are eternal snows and glaciers, and the plateau is characterized by a mild tropical climate. There are neither high nor low temperatures here; the average monthly temperature varies: in Zomba from 16.1 in July to 23.3° in November; in Dar es Salaam between 23.3 in July - August and 27.8 ° in January - February; in Entebbe, on the northwestern shore of the lake. Victoria, the amplitude of oscillations is even smaller - from 21.1 to 22.8°. The climate here is of eternal spring. The year is divided into seasons depending on the amount of precipitation. The average rainfall throughout the East African plateau does not exceed 1140 mm per year. Wetter areas are located on the western and northern coasts of the lake. Victoria: Bukoba, for example, receives up to 1,780 mm of rainfall per year. The driest: the Turkana plains adjacent to the lake. Rudolph, which receive no more than 100-125 mm of annual precipitation; areas located south and north of these plains - up to 375 mm; the Laikipia plateau (Kenya) - up to 700 mm, and the western part of Northern Rhodesia, where, for example in Colombo, at Victoria Falls, the average annual precipitation does not exceed 740 mm.
In the Zomba region, the year is sharply divided into two seasons: rainy and dry; The amount of precipitation by month ranges from 2.5 mm in August to 278.0 mm in January. Near Mombasa, the year is divided into four seasons: two rainy, of which one is long, the other short, and two dry; The amount of precipitation by month ranges from 20.3 mm in January to 348.0 mm in May. In Naivasha, near the lake of the same name at the bottom of the Great Fault Valley, precipitation is distributed more or less evenly throughout the year - a minimum of 27.9 mm in January and a maximum of 162.5 mm in April. There are also two rainy seasons, but they are not particularly noticeable.
The characteristic landscape of East Tropical Africa is savannah, sometimes turning into dry steppes and semi-deserts. There are no deserts in the proper sense of the word, with the exception of the western part of the Turkana plains. The East African steppes are covered with tall, tough grasses, up to a meter in height, but they do not grow as densely as in the savannah; during periods of drought they turn yellow and often die. In savannas, among dense and tall grasses, there are more or less significant groups of trees, sometimes reaching 20 m in height; In some places they form small forests - this is an area of park savanna.
In the humid areas of Mezhozerye, large areas are covered with marsh vegetation: reeds, reeds and papyruses cover standing waters with a continuous carpet. This is primarily the lake area. Kyoga and northwestern coast of the lake Victoria, the deltas of the Ruvuma and Rufiji rivers, as well as small areas on the coast against the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba. Kagera and other rivers flowing into the lake. Victoria from the west, flow along channels 8-13 km wide, half overgrown with papyrus, which rises 2.5-3 m above the water level; All around there are large expanses of standing water, chains of small lakes and, in places, tropical forest.
At the foot of the mountain ranges there are virgin forests of the equatorial type, similar to the forests of the Congo Basin: huge trees, multi-tiered vegetation, dense undergrowth. As you climb the mountains, you can observe a complete change of vertical plant zones. At an altitude of about a thousand meters, the virgin tropical forest gives way to a park savanna, followed by a savanna with very tall grasses, where trees are very rare. This is an agricultural zone; there are many settlements surrounded by fields and plantations. At an altitude of 2-3 thousand, and sometimes 4 thousand m, forests characteristic of temperate climate: less tall, not as dense and with weaker foliage. They are followed by a zone of alpine meadows, and at an altitude of about 5 thousand m, a zone of eternal snow and glaciers begins.
The natural conditions of Eastern Tropical Africa create a natural basis for a wide variety of human economic activities. Along with delicate tropical and subtropical crops, crops characteristic of the temperate climate zone can be grown here. Bananas, sugar cane, rubber plants, oil palms, sweet potatoes, cassava, ground nuts, rice, sesame, cotton, cocoa, coffee, tea, tobacco, corn, barley, millet, peas and beans, ordinary potatoes and wheat - this is far from a complete list of crops growing in different areas of East Tropical Africa. Agriculture is possible everywhere, and only in the northern regions of Kenya does irrigation require complex hydraulic structures.
Wild animals do not suffer from the bite of the tsetse fly, but are carriers of trypanosomes. In some areas of Africa, particularly in the Zambezi basin, attempts were made to combat the spread of the disease by mass destruction of wild animals. Among domestic animals, only goats, donkeys and mules are immune.
The riches of the earth's interior have not yet been explored. Currently, diamonds are mined in Tanganyika, Northern Rhodesia and Uganda, tin in Uganda and Tanganyika, copper, lead, zinc, vanadium and magnesite in Northern Rhodesia. Iron ores are found everywhere, but have no industrial significance. Coal was discovered in the south of Tanganyika. Eastern Tropical Africa is rich in “white coal” - it is possible to build powerful hydroelectric power stations on the waterfalls and rapids of its rivers. Eastern Tropical Africa is undoubtedly a region rich in potential.
Division of Africa into subregions: two main ones.
The economic regionalization of Africa has not yet taken shape. In educational and scientific literature, it is usually divided into two large natural and cultural-historical subregions: North Africa and Tropical Africa (or “Sub-Saharan Africa”). Tropical Africa, in turn, is divided into Western, Central, Eastern and Southern Africa(but without South Africa).
North Africa: image of the territory.
The total area of Northern Africa is about 10 million km 2, the population is about 200 million people. The position of the subregion is primarily determined by its Mediterranean “façade”, thanks to which North Africa actually neighbors Southern Europe and South-West Asia and receives access to the main sea route from Europe to Asia. The “rear” of the region is formed by the sparsely populated areas of the Sahara.
North Africa is the cradle of ancient Egyptian civilization, whose contribution to world culture is already known to you. In ancient times, Mediterranean Africa was considered the granary of Rome; traces of underground drainage galleries and other structures can still be found among the lifeless sea of sand and stone. Many coastal cities trace their origins to ancient Roman and Carthaginian settlements. The Arab colonization of the VI-XII centuries had a huge influence on the ethnic composition of the population, its culture, religion and way of life. North Africa is still called Arab today: almost its entire population speaks Arabic and professes Islam.
The economic life of North Africa is concentrated in the coastal zone. Here are the main centers of manufacturing industry, the main areas of subtropical agriculture, including on irrigated lands. Naturally, almost the entire population of the region is concentrated in this zone. In rural areas, adobe houses with flat roofs and earthen floors predominate.
The cities also have a very characteristic appearance. Therefore, geographers and ethnographers highlight a special Arabic city type, which, like other eastern cities, is characterized by its division into two parts - old and new.
The core of the old part of the city is usually the kasbah - a fortification (citadel) located on an elevated place. The Kasbah is surrounded in a tight ring by other quarters of the old city, built up with low houses with flat roofs and blank courtyard fences. Their main attraction is the colorful oriental bazaars. This entire old city, often surrounded by protective walls, is called the medina, which means “city” in Arabic (see Figure 78). Already outside the medina there is a new, modern part of the city.
All these contrasts are most pronounced in the largest cities, the appearance of which acquires not only national, but also cosmopolitan features. Probably, first of all, this applies to Cairo - the capital and largest city of Egypt, an important political, cultural and religious center of the entire Arab world. Cairo is uniquely located where the narrow Nile Valley meets the fertile Delta, a major cotton-growing region where the world's best long-staple cotton is grown. This area was also called delta by Herodotus, who noted that its configuration resembles the ancient Greek letter “delta” (see map in the atlas). In 1969, Cairo celebrated its 1000th anniversary.
The southern part of the subregion is very sparsely populated. The agricultural population is concentrated in oases, where the main consumer and cash crop is the date palm. The rest of the territory, and even then not all of it, is inhabited only by nomadic camel breeders. and in the Algerian and Libyan parts of Sahara there are oil and gas fields.
Only along the Nile Valley does a narrow “strip of life” wedge itself into the desert kingdom far to the south. The construction of the Acyan hydroelectric complex on the Nile, with the economic and technical assistance of the USSR, was of great importance for the development of all of upper Egypt. . (Task 7.)
Task 1.
Using Table 1 in the Appendices, plot the African countries that gained political independence after World War II on an outline map. Indicate the dates of independence and compare the countries of Northern and Tropical Africa in this regard.
Using the “business card” on the flyleaf of the textbook, select the corresponding “pairs” of African countries and foreign Europe, approximately equal in size to the territory.
Task 2.
Using atlas maps and tables 3-5 of the “Appendices”, classify African countries according to the degree of their wealth in mineral resources. Make a table in the following form:
Draw conclusions about the provision of these countries with raw materials and fuel for the development of heavy industry
Additional task (difficult).
Using the same sources, determine the main territorial combinations of minerals. Oxapacterize the composition of the fossils in each of them; try to connect it with the tectonic structure of the territory. Plot the mineral combinations on a contour map.
Task 3.
Using Figures 7, 8 and 9, tables 6, 7 and 8 in the “Appendices” and atlas maps, specify and supplement the characteristics of land, water and agroclimatic resources of Africa contained in the text of the textbook.
Task 4.
Using Table 3, quantify the urban explosion in Africa. What conclusions can be drawn based on these calculations?
Task 5.
Analyze Figure 77. Using the economic map of Africa in the atlas, indicate specifically which ore, non-metallic minerals, food products and types of agricultural raw materials determine the monocultural specialization of each of the countries indicated on the graph.
Task 6.
Using the physical and economic maps of Africa in the atlas, determine: 1) the main areas of the mining industry in Africa and their specialization, 2) the main areas of commercial agriculture and their specialization, 3) trans-African transport routes. Also use the pictures from Topic 5 of the textbook.
Additional task (creative!).
Using the atlas maps, make a table in your notebook “Zonal specialization of export and consumer crops in Africa” in the following form:
Draw all possible conclusions from the analysis of this table.
Task 7 (creative!).
Using the text of the textbook and the plan of Cairo in the atlas, prepare a message on the topic “Cairo - an Arab city in North Africa.” Also use additional sources information.
Additional task (for fun).
Imagine that you have taken a journey along the Nile from Aswan to its mouth. Describe your trip in a letter to a friend. Try to create a colorful image of this territory.
Task 8 (creative!).
In your opinion, what needs to be done to prevent a repetition of the “Sahel tragedy” in the future? Give a rationale for your “project.”
Additional task (for fun).
In his novel Five Weeks hot air balloon» Jules Verne talked about traveling around Africa in a hot air balloon. “Repeat” the route of this trip. In what countries are the areas of Africa described by the writer located and what are they like today?
Task 9 (final).
1. (Work in a notebook.) Compare the countries of Northern, Tropical Africa and South Africa according to some indicators characterizing their population and economy. Identify similarities and differences. Present the necessary data in the form of a table.
2. Compare the major extractive industries of North Africa and Southwest Asia. What conclusion can be drawn from this comparison?
3. Compare the main export crops of Tropical Africa and South Asia. What conclusion can be drawn from this comparison?
4. For classroom demonstration, prepare a small album “African Geography on Postage Stamps.”
Self-control and mutual control block
Answer the questions:
1. Why is the population shift to the coasts of the oceans and seas in Africa less pronounced than in foreign Asia?
2. Why is the Congo River not used to export industrial products from the United Belt region?
3. Why is Cairo called “the diamond button that fastens the delta”?
4. Why is Senegal called the “peanut republic”?
Are the following statements correct:
1. Most African countries achieved independence in the second half of the twentieth century.
2. Africa is the region with the highest birth rate and highest death rate in the world.
3. African countries are characterized by high rates of urbanization.
4. Nigeria's main mineral resource is bauxite.
Choose the correct answer:
1. The largest country in Africa by population... (Egypt, Ethiopia, Nigeria, South Africa).
2. The most important types of mineral resources in North Africa are... (coal, iron ore, bauxite, oil, natural gas, phosphorites).
3. The least developed countries in Africa include... (Algeria, Ethiopia, Chad, Niger, Somalia, South Africa).
4. The main export agricultural crops of Tropical Africa are... (wheat, millet, cotton, citrus fruits, peanuts, coffee, cocoa, natural rubber, sisal).
Can you:
1. Place on a contour map of the world from memory the following countries mentioned in the text and on text maps: Libya, Algeria, Sudan, Ghana, Congo, Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Mozambique, Madagascar?
2. Show on the map the following cities mentioned in the text and on the maps: Cairo, Kinshasa, Addis Ababa, Nairobi, Lagos, Dakar, Luanda, Johannesburg?
3. Explain the meaning of the following concepts and terms: monoculture, subsistence farming, apartheid?
4. Indicate which of the following countries are the main producers and exporters of cocoa: Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, Angola?
Identify the countries to which the following statements apply:
1. A country located on an island with an area of 600 thousand km 2.
2. Countries located “inside” the territory of South Africa.
3. A country lying along the middle reaches of the Niger River and without access to the seas.
4. A country whose capital is Nairobi.
5. A country where 98% of the population is concentrated in an area occupying less than 4% of its total area.
Fill in the blanks in the following phrases:
1. The copper belt stretches from Zambia to the southeastern part... .
2. ... - Africa's largest oil producer and exporter, member of OPEC
3. South Africa produces... all of Africa's manufactured products.
Methodological keys to topic 8
What to remember
1. Political map and peoples of Africa. (Geography, 7th grade.)
2. Features of the physical and geographical position, relief, minerals, climate, waters, soils and vegetation of Africa, natural areas within its limits.
(Geography, 7th grade.)
3. Ancient Egypt. (History, 5th grade.)
4. The main content of the national liberation struggle of the peoples of Africa in late XIX- early 20th century (History, 8th grade.)
5. Material from part 1 of this textbook.
6. Concepts and terms: colony, bantustan, platform, desert, savannah, equatorial forest, kimberlite pipe, national park.
What you need to know
Leading ideas of topic 8.
Transforming the socio-economic structure of Africa requires great efforts on the part of both African peoples and the entire world community.
Main scientific knowledge of topic 8:
1. Characteristic features of the economic-geographical location, geography natural conditions and resources, population, industry, agriculture, environmental problems of Africa.
2. The concept of monoculture.
3. Image of the territory of North Africa.
4. Image of the territory of Tropical Africa.
5. Brief overview of South Africa.
6. Key words of the topic: 1) colonial type of sectoral structure of the economy, 2) monoculture, 3) Arab type of city.
What you need to know
1. Using a textbook and atlas, independently obtain the necessary knowledge for characterization.
2. Implement comparative characteristics industries, regions and cities.
3. Prepare a summary of a report on a given topic.
Maksakovsky V.P., Geography. Economic and social geography of the world 10th grade. : textbook for general education institutions
Subregions of Northern and Tropical Africa. South Africa
Stages of development. After the end of World War II, there were only three independent states in this region: Ethiopia, Liberia and the Union of South Africa (SA), which was proclaimed the Republic of South Africa (SA) in 1960.
During the war and after its end, the economies of African countries developed very quickly. Foreign investment in the mining industry, transport and energy production, and agriculture has increased. If in 1938, African countries gave the metropolitan countries a tribute of 1 billion dollars a year, then in 1955 it increased to 5.44 billion dollars. In African countries, social changes occurred very quickly. There are more workers, townspeople, national entrepreneurs, and intelligentsia. The number of workers in the 50s exceeded 10 million people. Trade unions, public organizations and parties were formed in each country. African youth, having completed their studies in the cities of Europe and America, began to take part in the national liberation movement.
In the second half of the 20th century. The national liberation struggle of the peoples of Africa went through several stages:
Mid 40s - mid 50s. The period of the organization of national forces, the formation of socio-political groups, the beginning of the struggle;
Mid-50s - 1960 In Tropical Africa, Ghana (1957) and Guinea (1958) embarked on the path of independence. In 1960 on basics colonial system a serious blow was dealt, it became the Year of Africa: 17 states achieved freedom;
60s - 70s. The peoples of Guinea-Bissau, Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe won freedom in an armed struggle against the colonialists;
80 - 90s. Eradicating violent tactics and remnants of colonial power. Namibia, South Africa, Eritrea achieved freedom.
Thus, Africa was freed from colonial dependence and 52 sovereign states were formed.
Development problems. Many countries in the African region are classified as underdeveloped (Somalia, Chad, Central African Republic, Angola, Eritrea, etc.). During the period of independence, the economies of African countries began to develop noticeably. Gross domestic product growth reaches an average of 3-4% per year, but this figure is not typical for all countries. In 24 African countries the situation has not improved. This is due to several reasons. Firstly, tribal and semi-feudal relations in Africa were not completely destroyed. More than 100 million peasants use primitive tools. Secondly, the population grew rapidly. Ethnic, territorial and political conflicts, civil wars also interfered with their development.
One of the richest countries in Africa is Nigeria with a population of about 115 million people. From the late 60s to the 90s, it experienced several military coups. After elections in March 1999, civil authority was established here. It was headed by O. Obasanjo.
IN beginning of XXI V. Africa was gripped by the process of creating a multi-party system. Although the roots of authoritarianism and military dictatorships have not yet been completely torn out, the process of democratization of society is underway. Of course, due to various factors, it has its own characteristics. Firstly, the creation of many small political parties that bear the stamp of tribalism, clanism, confessionalism or even factionism. Thus, there were 30 parties in Nigeria, 47 in Mali, 122 in Madagascar, 176 in Cameroon, 70 in Togo, 78 in Chad, 160 in Benin, and 260 in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Many of them turned out to be unviable and soon disintegrated. Nevertheless, the emergence of parties reflecting the interests of certain groups remains strong. Secondly, many of them do not have clear software settings and do not have grassroots organizations and have little connection with the masses. During the political struggle, they engage more in demagoguery or exposing each other’s mistakes and shortcomings.
Further, calling themselves democratic, if they come to power they begin to pursue a policy of authoritarianism. All this stems from the disunity of African society, the lack of political culture, and the weakness of parties in organizational terms. Sometimes the opposition manages to create united coalitions and even defeat ruling parties that have been in power for a long time. Thus, in Kenya, the national rainbow coalition led by M. Kibaki managed to defeat D. Arai Moi, who was president for 24 years (2002). But in Kenya, in 2007, a scandal occurred when the opposition led by R. Odinga challenged the results of the presidential elections. Only after bloody clashes in the country, with the assistance of the UN and OAU, was it possible to relieve tensions.
Zimbabwe- a relatively developed country even during the colonial period - during the 27 years of R. Mugabe's rule, it found itself far thrown back. At the beginning of 2008, the presidential elections, according to the opposition, brought them victory in the first round, but the authorities, through fraud, held the second round without the participation of the main opponent. Mugabe retained his post, but Western powers declared a boycott of the country. After much wrangling, with the assistance of the Union of Africa, the opposition leader was allowed to take the post of prime minister, and thus there was relative calm in the country.
For almost half a century, D. Ratsiraka was the president of Madagascar. In 2001, his rival M. Ravalomanana received more votes, nevertheless Ratsiraka tried not to cede power. Many Africans are experiencing food shortages and armed clashes have broken out. Only with the participation of drinking water from African countries was the conflict resolved and the winner became president. In 2006, Ravalomanani was again elected president.
At the same time, in some countries there are political parties with national programs (Botswana, Zambia, Kenya, Congo, Mali, Mozambique, Angola, Namibia, Tanzania, South Africa). Socialist slogans have disappeared from party programs, and instead they talk about the development of a market economy.
In April 2007, presidential elections were held in which Umar Yar'Adua won. That same year, on December 30, presidential elections were held in Kenya. The victory of the current head of state, Mwai Kibeki, was declared, but his rivals did not recognize it, which led to unrest in the country and the death of many people.
In South Africa there was a split in the ruling African national congress. In the spring of 2009, its leader D. Zuma became president.
Foreign policy. African countries who have become independent belong to the “third world”. They participate in the non-aligned movement. With the participation of K. Nkrumah (Ghana), J. Nyerere (Tanzania), Emperor Haile Selasie (Ethiopia), K. Kaunda (Zambia), S. Toure (Guinea), M. Keita (Mali), L. Senghor (Senegal) , leaders of Arab countries G. A. Nasser (Egypt), Hassan II (Morocco), A. bin Bella (Algeria), etc. On May 25, 1963, the Organization of African Unity (OAU) was formed. In 1980-1990 economic cooperation gave rise to integration processes in the regions. There are several organizations operating on the mainland. African countries maintain close ties with their former metropolises.
In 2002 African states decided to create a Union of Africa with the aim of integrating their economies and, through cooperation, overcoming the acute socio-economic crisis. It is no secret that due to the neocolonial policies of the West, as well as the weakness of the political elite and the corruption of many leaders, African countries have not been able to overcome their backwardness. Although in the 60-90s there was an increase in production, the wealth of Africa ended up either in Western banks, or was eaten up by bureaucrats that had increased in numbers tens and hundreds of times, or were pocketed by corrupt regimes. In the Central African Republic (CAR), Liberia, Uganda, Mali, Congo, Chad, and Ethiopia, embezzlers ruled for many years. Figures such as Idi Amin (Uganda), Mengistu Haile Mariam (Ethiopia), Musa Traore (Mali) enjoyed the patronage of the USSR, and Mobutu Sese Seko (Congo), EK. T. Bokassa (CAR), X. Habré (Chad) was under the guardianship of the United States.
The continent suffers from tribal and religious tensions. In the 90s, a terrible clash between the Hutu and Tutsi tribes took place in Rwanda and Burundi, which spread to neighboring Uganda and Congo, where their fellow tribesmen live.
More than 1.5 million people died. Christian-Muslim massacres frequently rock Nigeria, Africa's most populous country (more than 100 million people).
The dominance of foreign companies, ineffective leadership, increased military spending and other factors led to a large ... debt in Africa: from 31.6 billion dollars in 1975 to 370 billion dollars by 2000. Although a number of developed Western countries began to write off some of them debt, but African countries bear almost half of the debt of all developing countries in the world. The World Health Organization (WHO) is alarmed by the rising incidence of AIDS in Africa.
In the mid-80s and 90s, there was a trend towards strengthening democracy in Black Africa. Odious regimes fell in Congo, Chad, Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Mali. Many embezzler dictators fled to other countries. Their names are covered in shame.
In 2003, dictatorship in Liberia was eliminated. Relative calm has been restored in Rwanda and Burundi.
IN recent years In a number of African countries, the activity of Islamic extremists is intensifying (Chad, Somalia, Nigeria, Senegal, etc.). In Ethiopia, Congo, Nigeria, separatist organizations are raising their heads. On the coast of Somalia, sea pirates pose a serious threat to merchant ships. Cases of black racism are on the rise in South Africa. There, local residents use violence against immigrants from neighboring countries.
Africa's problems attract the attention of great powers, the EU, and the UN. In 2004-2007 they wrote off the debts of the continent's poorest countries and reviewed and proposed new schemes for their development. In 2008, large sums were allocated to supply countries suffering from food shortages. Natural resources Africa is attracting growing interest from both the former metropolises, the USA, China, Japan, Russia, and India, which leads to a new round of rivalry between them. Kazakhstan still has diplomatic relations with South Africa.
LATIN AMERICA COUNTRIES
Main trends in the socio-economic and political development of countries Latin America in the first post-war decades. A characteristic feature of the development of Latin American countries has become the process of carrying out various economic, political, legal and sociocultural reforms. Depending on the level of economic and political development, these countries are divided into three groups.
The most developed countries in Latin America are Argentina, Uruguay and Chile, which took the path of capitalism earlier than others. This group includes Brazil and Mexico. Later, Venezuela and Colombia joined them. Their development is characterized by great dynamism. Overall, these seven countries account for 80-85% of the region's economy. They determine the appearance and level of its development.
The second group of countries - Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia and small states Central America and the Caribbean. The manufacturing industry is less developed in them, agriculture predominates, and patriarchal remnants are more noticeable.
The third group consists of the least developed countries of the Central American subregion and the Caribbean (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Belize, Haiti), as well as Paraguay. In these countries, agriculture dominates with significant patriarchal remnants, there remains a strong dependence on foreign monopolies, a low standard of living, poverty for the vast majority of the population, instability political life, the role of the army is significant (with the exception of Costa Rica). The dominance of the American trading and manufacturing company United Fruit Company (USFCO) in this subregion has become a feature of its economy.
Common feature The economy of the countries of the region was the predominance of the agricultural and raw materials export economy. It has traditionally been associated with the bourgeois-landlord oligarchy and foreign capital. The implementation of agrarian reforms led to changes in the structure of production. The rapid growth of local industry due to a reduction in imports from the warring countries led to the development of “import-substituting industrialization.” In turn, the number of workers and employees at enterprises, which were replenished by migrant peasants, increased. The city becomes the center of political life.
The political situation in the region in the post-war period was characterized by instability and fragility of constitutional, democratic forms of government, party and political structures. The armed forces put pressure on constitutional governments and carried out coups d'etat, replacing one government with another.
A prominent role in public life The region is preserved by the Catholic Church. The region is home to about half of the world's Catholics. In areas with a compact Indian population, a significant weight of Indian traditional society, its communal structure.
National reformist movements in Latin America. IN post-war decade Nationalist and reformist parties were created. They used a revolutionary vocabulary that was accessible to the sentiments of the broad masses. The most popular national reformist parties included: in Peru - the Aprist People's Party, in Venezuela - Democratic Action, in Bolivia - the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement, in Mexico - the Institutional Revolutionary Party, in Costa Rica - National Liberation, etc.
The most massive national reformist movement was Peronism in Argentina. The most influential figure of that time was General Juan Domingo Pero, who became the President of Argentina after the war (1946-1955). Peron's policy was based on the ideas of justicialism and a special Argentine path of development. “Justicialism” (from Spanish - “justice”) was the concept of the unity of all layers of the Argentine nation under the slogan of “Greater Argentina”.
Being a military man, X. Peron chose an authoritarian method of governing the country. Along with the Peronist Party, the government also included trade unions. A number of radical reforms were carried out: railways, telephones, the Central Bank, and other enterprises were nationalized, and national capital was encouraged. Social legislation provided broad social rights to workers, their guarantee was the constitution adopted in 1949. But in September 1955, as a result of the military coup X. Peron was forced to flee the country.
Peronism played a positive role in national revival and development. This is evidenced by the return of X. Peron comes to power after a 17-year military regime in Argentina.
In Mexico, democratic reforms were carried out by the government of L. Cardenas, the goal of which was the national revival of the country. National reformism was firmly rooted in the Mexican labor movement. After the war, the Institutional Revolutionary Party became the leading and most popular and massive party in Mexico. Trade unions - the confederation of workers in Mexico - actively cooperated with the government and the party.
Reformist alternative. “Union for Progress.” Since the second half of the 50s, revolutionary and armed insurgent movements have gained momentum, the goal of which was a radical solution to numerous problems. These include crisis phenomena in the global economy, falling prices for exports of goods from Latin American countries, deterioration in the financial sector, rising prices, and high unemployment. The situation was complicated by the demographic explosion - population growth, which exacerbated social tensions.
In addition, the unfavorable political climate of dictatorial regimes served as a prerequisite for the rise of the revolutionary democratic movement. As a result, dictatorships in Peru, Colombia, Honduras, and Venezuela were overthrown. In Argentina, the military transferred powers to the constitutional president, Fropdisi. An anti-dictatorship movement developed in Nicaragua, Guatemala and Bolivia.
The “Union for Progress” program was the embodiment of the ideas of national reformism. This program for the economic, social and political modernization of Latin America was proposed by US President John Kennedy as part of the “new frontier” policy and adopted by the 19 Latin American republics in August 1961. It was planned to allocate $100 billion over 10 years. Of these, 20 billion dollars were provided by the United States and 80 billion by the Latin American countries themselves.
The rise of the anti-dictatorship struggle. Cuban revolution. The most striking events of the 50-80s in the fight against dictatorial regimes were the revolutions in Cuba, Chile, and Nicaragua.
The revolutionary struggle in Cuba against the dictatorial regime of F. Batista began in the 50s. The rebel troops were led by a young lawyer, Fidel Castro Ruz, the son of a wealthy landowner. He renounced his class, had enormous will, courage, and aroused universal admiration among the Cubans. The first attempt was an unsuccessful attack on a military barracks in Santiago on July 26, 1953.
The rebel army, whose leadership included famous revolutionaries, including the Castro brothers, Che Guevara, Valdez Menendez and others, fought a guerrilla war in the mountains in the east of the island. The Batista regime collapsed. On January 1-2, 1959, Havana was occupied by rebel army units. Revolutionary transformations and the construction of socialism began in the country. A totalitarian regime gradually emerged, based on a one-party system, the dominance of one ideology, and the cult of the leader.
Was liquidated in Cuba private sector in the village, all small industrial enterprises, trade and services were nationalized. After the resolution of the Caribbean Crisis of 1962, Cuba's diplomatic and economic relations with the countries of the region were restored. Cuba entered the non-aligned movement. To this day, it remains one of the last socialist countries in the world.
In 2005-2007 F. Castro began to step away from power due to illness. In 2008, he resigned as a representative of the State Council. All his powers passed to his brother Raul Castro.
Revolutionary development in Latin American countries. The victory of the Cuban Revolution had a strong influence on the liberation movement in Latin America.
In the 60-70s, mass movements for national liberation were organized in Uruguay, Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico. As a result, leftist forces came to power in these countries. Elected presidents, in the interests of their countries, pursued an independent national course, including international politics. Panama regained sovereignty over the canal zone through a treaty with the United States (1977).
The Chilean Revolution (1970-1973) was the apogee of revolutionary and democratic changes. In 1969, leftist parties and organizations created a bloc National Unity led by socialist Salvador Allende. The victory in the presidential elections on September 4, 1970 allowed the formation of the Government of Popular Unity.
One of the first laws in the economic sphere was the Law on the Nationalization of Large Foreign Enterprises. Building socialism was the goal of transformation in Chile.
On September 11, 1973, a military coup took place, the Government of Popular Unity was overthrown, and Allende himself was killed. The military junta of General Augusto Pinochet (1973-1990) came to power in Chile.
The revolution in Nicaragua resulted in a Central American conflict, which became the object of confrontation between two superpowers - the USA and the USSR. The main prerequisites for the revolution were the backwardness syndrome - the costs of the dependent agro-export economic model and the anti-people policy of the Somoza clan. Revolutionary struggle in the form of guerrilla warfare began in Nicaragua in the late 1950s. In 1961, a single political organization was created - the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). In 1979, as a result of successful military operations, the Sandinistas overthrew the dictator.
After several years of internal difficulties of the transition period and the threat of external intervention from the United States and other neighboring states, in 1984 the Sandinistas, led by one of the leaders of the FSLN, D. Orth, again won the general elections. In 1990, presidential powers were transferred to V. Chamorro, a right-wing candidate. However, in 2000, D. Ortega was again elected president.
The policy of modernization of military regimes of the 70-80s. The overthrow of the Popular Unity government in Chile was not the only defeat of the democratic left. Leftist nationalist governments were overthrown in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala, Honduras, Uruguay, and Ecuador. In the mid-70s, the situation as a whole in the region changed: military dictatorial regimes of an authoritarian type (military juntas) were established.
Repressive regimes brutally dealt with leftist forces and the opposition. Gradually, general economic transformations forced them to evolve towards policy liberalization.
The peculiarities of authoritarian military regimes were influenced by changes in world development caused by scientific and technological revolution, the growth of internationalization of the economy, and the strengthening of neoliberal market regulation. The new role of the military in Latin America was explained by the growth in the number of proletarian and middle urban strata in society, which led to the replenishment of the officer corps with people from these low-income strata. Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, educated officers were able to understand the reasons for the backwardness of their countries and adopted new doctrines to limit dependence on foreign capital and local oligarchy.
Thus, the military authorities of Argentina and Brazil, by reducing the public sector and strengthening the private sector, stimulated export production, actively attracting foreign capital. The impressive progress in the Brazilian economy was called the “Brazilian miracle”: every year for 7 years, the GDP growth rate was 11%. Economic reforms in Chile and stable GDP growth rates led to talk about the Chilean “economic miracle”. The result of the evolution of the A. Pinochet regime in Chile were nationwide days of protest and a referendum in 1988. 53% of Chileans voted against the dictator, and in December 1989, the leader of the Christian Democratic Party P. Eilwin was elected president, to whom on March 11, 1990. A. Pinochet transferred power.
The fall of dictatorships and the restoration of democratic regimes (80s - early 90s). By the mid-80s, an evolution of military-authoritarian regimes took place. There was growing dissatisfaction in the countries that mass repressions continued, there was a lack of democratic freedoms, and human rights were violated. This was increasingly opposed by the opposition, which was supported by the broad masses of the people. Dictatorships were losing social and political support. The process of eliminating dictatorships has accelerated.
In 1983 in Argentina, the candidate from civil opposition R. Alfonsin, which ended military rule. In 1985, in Brazil and Uruguay, the military transferred power to civilian presidents. In 1986, Haiti fell to the tyrannical dictatorship of the Duvalier family. At the same time, the dictatorships in Guatemala and Honduras fell, and in 1989 the Paraguayan dictator A. Stroessner was overthrown.
For the first time in the history of the continent, power passed almost everywhere to constitutional governments, and they restored democratic freedoms. However, states found themselves in difficult economic conditions. Modernization, continued under new conditions, failed to improve the socio-economic and political situation. At the same time, the financial, economic, scientific and technical dependence of the region increased, and contradictions between states intensified.
Contemporary issues development of Latin American countries. Integration processes. Focus on external factors and financial and economic support from outside are a characteristic trend in the development of the economies of the countries of the region. Huge foreign debt is constantly growing. If in 1970 it amounted to 20 billion dollars, in the 80s - 400 billion, then by mid-2000 it increased to 770 billion dollars.
The main direction of the current political and economic efforts of Latin American governments is the search for an alternative. Soberly assessing their position in the world, they understand that alone the countries of the continent are doomed to complete lawlessness, especially in relations with the United States. Life itself forces them to improve the ways of regional integration. The general trend in the development of integration is to unite efforts in protecting common interests. A feature of economic integration in Latin America is the existence of several trade and economic groupings.
In the 60s, the largest integration associations were the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAST) and the Central American Common Market (CAOC). LAST includes 11 South American countries and Mexico. CAOR consists of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica.
In 1967, the states of the region signed the Treaty of Tlatelolco (named after the area of the Mexican capital where it was signed) to create a nuclear-free zone. In the course of integration, subregional groupings emerged. In 1969, the Andean group (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile) appeared within LAST, and Venezuela joined it. In 1995, the Andean Group was transformed into the Andean Integration System.
In 1975, the Latin American Economic System was created, consisting of 25 states, with the aim of promoting their economic cooperation.
Brazil and Argentina entered into an Economic Union Agreement in 1986. In March 1991, it was transformed into the South American Common Market (MEREOSUR) within Brazil,
Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay (70% of South America). On January 1, 1995, MERCOSUR became a Customs Union, where 90% of goods were exempt from customs duties.
There is another trend in the integration process of Latin American states. It lies in rapprochement and, in the future, integration with the United States, up to the creation of a common free trade zone with them in the Western Hemisphere.
Currently, integration associations in Latin America, especially MERCOSUR, are rapidly developing ties with the European Community. Over the past 10 years, trade turnover has increased fivefold.
In 2004-2008 in a number of countries (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Mexico, etc.), anti-American politicians came to power as a result of elections. They are trying to get rid of the dominance of North American monopolies. This policy is actively supported by Cuba and especially Venezuela.
Lecture 42
Topic: INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XX - BEGINNING OF THE XXI centuries.
1. The division of the world into two warring blocs in the second half of the 1940s - early 1950s.
2. Confrontation between NATO and the Department of Internal Affairs.
3. Cold War politics.
4. Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe.
5. Problems of disarmament. The peace movement and the US-Soviet agreements.
6. Integration processes in the world.
7. International terrorism at the present stage.
1. The North Atlantic Alliance (NATO) was formed in 1949 by representatives of 12 countries: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Great Britain and the United States of America. Greece and Turkey joined NATO in 1952, the Federal Republic of Germany in 1955, Spain in 1982. The Treaty of the North Atlantic Alliance, signed in Washington on April 4, 1949, provided for mutual defense and collective security, initially against the threat of aggression from Soviet Union. It was the first post-war union created by the United States of America. The reason for creating the treaty was the increasing scope of the Cold War.
NATO was developed in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, which provided for the right of collective self-defense by regional organizations. This committed NATO member nations to the defense of all Western Europe and North Atlantic. In addition, the treaty was also developed with the aim of deepening the political, economic and social ties between its members.
The main body determining NATO policy is the North Atlantic Council, which meets in Brussels (until 1967, when meetings took place in Paris). The NATO Military Committee consists of senior military representatives from each NATO member country (except Iceland, which has no armed forces and is represented by a civilian, and France, which withdrew from the military alliance in 1966 while remaining a NATO member). The armed forces of NATO member countries include a peacetime designated commander who, in the event of war, will carry out local orders from the military committee.
In 1955, 6 years after the formation of NATO, the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO) was founded, which included the European states of the socialist camp, except Yugoslavia, which traditionally adhered to a policy of non-alignment. Within the framework of the Department of Internal Affairs, a joint command of the Armed Forces and a Political Advisory Committee were created - a body coordinating the foreign policy activities of the countries of Eastern Europe. Representatives of the Soviet army played a decisive role in all military-political structures of the Department of Internal Affairs.
2. The creation of NATO was a consequence of the Cold War and therefore all its activities were aimed at a tough confrontation with the Soviet Union and other socialist countries. In 1949, the US atomic monopoly was eliminated, which led to a sharp increase in the tendency of competition and an increase in the production of weapons of mass destruction.
The first major international crisis after the Second World War, related to the Korean War, began a year after the formation of NATO in 1950. The US military command intended to use atomic weapons against the DPRK; it was restrained only by the fear of similar retaliatory measures from the USSR. In the current situation, the USSR considered it necessary to provide military-technical assistance to North Korea. In addition to the USSR, the PRC and other socialist countries provided assistance to the DPRK. By mid-1951, the situation in Korea had stabilized, peace negotiations began, as a result of which an armistice agreement was signed on July 27, 1953.
Thanks to the change of the top leadership of the USSR and the so-called Khrushchev's Thaw In 1954, a meeting of the foreign ministers of the USA, Great Britain, France and the USSR was held on a number of issues on collective security in Europe and a number of crises. By 1954, US military forces were stationed in 49 foreign countries. Since Western representatives promoted the defensive nature of NATO at the meeting, after the meeting the Soviet government came up with a proposal for the USSR to join NATO and conclude a treaty on collective security in Europe with the participation of the United States. All these proposals were rejected by the West. NATO refused all further initiatives of the Soviet Union to begin negotiations on concluding a non-aggression pact between NATO and the Warsaw Pact countries and declared these initiatives propaganda. At the same time, in 1955-1960. The USSR unilaterally reduced the number of its armed forces by almost 3 million people, bringing it to 2.4 million people.
After the creation of thermonuclear weapons in the 50s, the USSR directed its efforts to establish military-strategic parity with the United States, which occurred at the turn of the 60s-70s.
The most dangerous international crisis arose in the fall of 1962 in connection with the situation around Cuba. During World War II, the United States built 434 naval bases and 1,933 army and strategic air bases. American armed forces were located on all continents, American missiles with nuclear warheads deployed in Western Europe, Turkey and other countries were aimed at several dozen large cities of the USSR and socialist countries. After the revolution in Cuba and the coming to power of the socialist government there, Soviet Union, taking advantage of Cuba's proximity to the United States, began deploying missiles there capable of carrying nuclear warheads. In response to this, the United States pulled its fleet to the island (one of the largest US military bases, Guantanamo Bay, is located on Cuban territory) and issued an ultimatum to withdraw from Cuba. Soviet troops. At the negotiations that began, a compromise was reached and Soviet missiles were withdrawn from Cuba.
The leaders of the USA and the USSR during the Caribbean and Korean crises, despite mutual hostility, managed to avoid a direct military clash, which would likely have led to a nuclear war with all its consequences. Subsequently, the world community became aware that in the 50s. In the USA, secret plans were developed to start a war against the USSR, which included atomic bombing of dozens of Soviet cities. Breaking the norms international law, American military aircraft flew at high altitudes in USSR airspace for reconnaissance purposes for several years,
With the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Warsaw Pact in 1991, NATO's role in European military affairs became uncertain. The focus of NATO's activities in Europe has shifted towards cooperation with European organizations - such as the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) - with the aim of planning policies with "less threat to continental security". NATO is also working towards the inclusion of former Warsaw Pact countries and CIS countries.
Currently, NATO's role has changed somewhat. The European Union, which is based on NATO member states, seeks to limit US interference in European affairs. For its part, the United States, which today does not have a sufficiently strong political and military counterweight throughout the world and is practically unlimited in its actions, stated that it does not need the support of its policies from any interstate alliances and do not intend to bind themselves to any international obligations. In the first years of the 21st century. NATO leaders in continental Europe - Germany and France - pursued a policy of rapprochement with Russia and the creation of a European community capable of resisting the dictates of the United States.
3. The Cold War policy was proclaimed in W. Churchill’s keynote speech on March 5, 1946 in the American city of Fulton, in which he called for the creation of an Anglo-American alliance to fight “world communism led by Soviet Russia.” Beginning in 1946, there was talk of a “cold war” (as opposed to a nuclear “hot war”) between two blocs of countries. The essence of this policy was to aggravate international tension, create and maintain the danger of a “hot war” (“brinkmanship”). The goal of the Cold War was to suppress by economic and political methods the USSR as the most possible competitor of the United States in the struggle for world domination, to justify huge government expenditures on the maintenance of the army and the production of weapons, to justify the neocolonial policy of the United States and its fight against workers, anti-racist and liberation movements.
The Cold War consisted of: the formation of a system of military-political alliances (NATO, SEATO, CENTO, ANZUS, etc.) directed against the USSR and its allies. In contrast to these blocs, the countries of the socialist bloc were united under the leadership of the USSR into the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA, 1949) and the defensive Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO, 1955);
Creation of a wide network of military bases in all strategically important points peace;
Accelerating the arms race, including nuclear and other types of weapons of mass destruction;
The use of force, the threat of force or the accumulation of weapons as a means of influencing the policies of other states (“nuclear diplomacy”, “politics from a position of strength”);
Use of economic pressure (discrimination in trade, etc.); intensification and expansion of subversive activities of intelligence services; encouraging putschs and coups d'etat;
Ideological propaganda (“psychological warfare”);
