Indian Congress. Indian National Congress and its movements. XIX Natal Indian Congress
democratic socialism
social democracy
social liberalism
Vedic socialism
secularism
Indian National Congress (Hindi भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस ; Party Congress) is the largest party in India; oldest political organization in India. Founded in . In the 15th convocation Lok Sabha(-) based on results general elections the party is represented by the largest faction in 206 deputies.
Switched from loyal opposition to the English colonial regime in the 20s. XX century to an active struggle for national independence, turning into a mass party. The basis of the INC program was the principles Gandhism. After India gained independence (1947), the INC was the ruling party until March 1977, returning to power in 1980-1989, 1991-1996. and in 2004-2014.
Background
In the 80s of the 19th century, the socio-political situation in India and around it in the British ruling circles raised the question of creating a political organization of Indian patriots. Liberal Viceroy of India Lord Ripon(1880-1884) supported the initiative of a group of Indian public figures in this matter. In his memorandum (December 25, 1882), he called for political changes in India to be brought from above within a constitutional framework.“These measures will not only have today’s results,” said the head of the British administration, “expressed in the gradual and safe implementation political education among the population, which is itself the object of politics, but will also pave the way for further progress in this field as this education becomes more complete and widespread.
Political activity
In December 1885, the founding congress of the Indian National Congress (INC) was held in Bombay, the first ever ancient country non-religious, essentially parliamentary, national organization. In his address to the participants of this session, its chairman V. C. Banerjee On the issue of the main tasks of the new party, he expressed the following thought:“The eradication of all racial, religious and national prejudices among the patriots of our country through direct friendly, personal communication with each other, and the development and consolidation of sentiments of national unity, which took their direction during the unforgettable reign of Lord Ripon ».
The resolutions of the forum of Indian patriots formulated the main demands of the congressists to the British government and parliament: the liquidation of the current Indian Affairs Council in London, the expansion of the composition of the Central Legislative Council under the Viceroy operating in India at the expense of the Indians, the need to carry out the same innovations in the provincial councils . Such partially elected bodies should be given the right to make inquiries and protests to the British House of Commons, where a standing committee should be formed to consider Indian problems. In addition, the delegates to the Bombay session of the INC proposed that Indian applicants should be given the right to fill positions in the Indian civil service in India, not only in London, but also in their homeland. It can be seen that in these claims of the INC leaders to the British government, the Congressists were very modest and did not go beyond the laws in force in their country.
The INK leadership launched a stormy political activity in India, as well as in the United Kingdom, seeking constitutional concessions. Used various shapes parliamentary legal activities, personal connections. In 1892, the British House of Commons approved a new electoral law that expanded the rights of Indians to participate in curial elections to the central and local legislative bodies of British India. The Indian opposition now demanded the right to place its representatives in the lower house of the British Parliament and to seek through this representative body for India a status approaching that of a British dominion through a series of political reforms over a long period of time.
He ran for a parliamentary seat from the British Liberal Party. D. Naoroji. During the 1893 election campaign in England, he managed to enter the House of Commons. His passionate condemnation of the current system of government in India was heard more than once by British parliamentarians. A representative of the Bombay Parsi trading community advocated the establishment of equal and harmonious Indian-British relations.
Organizational structure
The highest body is a plenary session, held once every three years, between sessions - a working committee ( Working Committee), higher authorities local organizations- state committees, district committees, primary committees.
See also
- Vallabhai Patel- one of the party leaders.
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Notes
Excerpt describing the Indian National Congress
“The prince doesn’t write anything about this,” he said quietly.- Doesn’t he write? Well, I didn’t make it up myself. - Everyone was silent for a long time.
“Yes... yes... Well, Mikhaila Ivanovich,” he suddenly said, raising his head and pointing to the construction plan, “tell me how you want to remake it...”
Mikhail Ivanovich approached the plan, and the prince, after talking with him about the plan new construction, looking angrily at Princess Marya and Desalles, went to his room.
Princess Marya saw Desalles' embarrassed and surprised gaze fixed on her father, noticed his silence and was amazed that the father had forgotten his son's letter on the table in the living room; but she was afraid not only to speak and ask Desalles about the reason for his embarrassment and silence, but she was afraid to even think about it.
In the evening, Mikhail Ivanovich, sent from the prince, came to Princess Marya for a letter from Prince Andrei, which was forgotten in the living room. Princess Marya submitted the letter. Although it was unpleasant for her, she allowed herself to ask Mikhail Ivanovich what her father was doing.
“They’re all busy,” said Mikhail Ivanovich with a respectfully mocking smile that made Princess Marya turn pale. – They are very worried about the new building. We read a little, and now,” said Mikhail Ivanovich, lowering his voice, “the bureau must have started working on the will.” (IN lately One of the prince’s favorite pastimes was working on the papers that were to remain after his death and which he called his will.)
- Is Alpatych being sent to Smolensk? - asked Princess Marya.
- Why, he’s been waiting for a long time.
When Mikhail Ivanovich returned with the letter to the office, the prince, wearing glasses, with a lampshade over his eyes and a candle, was sitting at the open bureau, with papers in his far-off hand, and in a somewhat solemn pose, he was reading his papers (remarks, as he called them), which were to be delivered to the sovereign after his death.
When Mikhail Ivanovich entered, there were tears in his eyes, memories of the time when he wrote what he was now reading. He took the letter from Mikhail Ivanovich’s hands, put it in his pocket, put away the papers and called Alpatych, who had been waiting for a long time.
On a piece of paper he wrote down what was needed in Smolensk, and he, walking around the room past Alpatych, who was waiting at the door, began to give orders.
- First, postal paper, do you hear, eight hundred, according to the sample; gold-edged... a sample, so that it will certainly be according to it; varnish, sealing wax - according to a note from Mikhail Ivanovich.
He walked around the room and looked at the memo.
“Then personally give the governor a letter about the recording.
Then they needed bolts for the doors of the new building, certainly of the style that the prince himself had invented. Then a binding box had to be ordered for storing the will.
Giving orders to Alpatych lasted more than two hours. The prince still did not let him go. He sat down, thought and, closing his eyes, dozed off. Alpatych stirred.
- Well, go, go; If you need anything, I will send it.
Alpatych left. The prince went back to the bureau, looked into it, touched his papers with his hand, locked it again and sat down at the table to write a letter to the governor.
It was already late when he stood up, sealing the letter. He wanted to sleep, but he knew that he would not fall asleep and that his worst thoughts came to him in bed. He called Tikhon and went with him through the rooms to tell him where to make his bed that night. He walked around, trying on every corner.
Everywhere he felt bad, but the worst thing was the familiar sofa in the office. This sofa was scary to him, probably because of the heavy thoughts that he changed his mind while lying on it. Nowhere was good, but the best place of all was the corner in the sofa behind the piano: he had never slept here before.
Tikhon brought the bed with the waiter and began to set it up.
- Not like that, not like that! - the prince shouted and moved it a quarter away from the corner, and then again closer.
“Well, I’ve finally done everything over, now I’ll rest,” the prince thought and allowed Tikhon to undress himself.
Frowning in annoyance at the efforts that had to be made to take off his caftan and trousers, the prince undressed, sank heavily onto the bed and seemed to be lost in thought, looking contemptuously at his yellow, withered legs. He did not think, but he hesitated in front of the difficulty ahead of him to lift those legs and move on the bed. “Oh, how hard! Oh, if only this work would end quickly, quickly, and you would let me go! - he thought. He pursed his lips and made this effort for the twentieth time and lay down. But as soon as he lay down, suddenly the whole bed moved evenly under him back and forth, as if breathing heavily and pushing. This happened to him almost every night. He opened his eyes that had closed.
- No peace, damned ones! - he growled with anger at someone. “Yes, yes, there was something else important, I saved something very important for myself in bed at night. Valves? No, that's what he said. No, there was something in the living room. Princess Marya was lying about something. Desalle—that fool—was saying something. There’s something in my pocket, I don’t remember.”
- Quiet! What did they talk about at dinner?
- About Prince Mikhail...
- Shut up, shut up. “The prince slammed his hand on the table. - Yes! I know, a letter from Prince Andrei. Princess Marya was reading. Desalles said something about Vitebsk. Now I'll read it.
He ordered to take the letter out of his pocket and move a table with lemonade and a whitish candle to the bed and, putting on his glasses, began to read. It was only here in the silence of the night, in the faint light from under the green cap, that he, having read the letter, for the first time, for a moment, understood its meaning.
“The French are in Vitebsk, after four crossings they can be at Smolensk; maybe they’re already there.”
- Quiet! - Tikhon jumped up. - No, no, no, no! - he shouted.
He hid the letter under the candlestick and closed his eyes. And he imagined the Danube, a bright afternoon, reeds, a Russian camp, and he enters, he, a young general, without one wrinkle on his face, cheerful, cheerful, ruddy, into Potemkin’s painted tent, and a burning feeling of envy for his favorite, just as strong, as then, worries him. And he remembers all the words that were said then at his first Meeting with Potemkin. And he imagines a short, fat woman with yellowness in her fat face - Mother Empress, her smiles, words when she greeted him for the first time, and he remembers her own face on the hearse and that clash with Zubov, which was then with her coffin for the right to approach her hand.
“Oh, quickly, quickly return to that time, and so that everything now ends as quickly as possible, as quickly as possible, so that they leave me alone!”
Bald Mountains, the estate of Prince Nikolai Andreich Bolkonsky, was located sixty versts from Smolensk, behind it, and three versts from the Moscow road.
On the same evening, as the prince gave orders to Alpatych, Desalles, having demanded a meeting with Princess Marya, informed her that since the prince was not entirely healthy and was not taking any measures for his safety, and from Prince Andrei’s letter it was clear that he was staying in Bald Mountains unsafe, he respectfully advises her to write a letter with Alpatych to the head of the province in Smolensk with a request to notify her about the state of affairs and the extent of the danger to which Bald Mountains are exposed. Desalle wrote a letter to the governor for Princess Marya, which she signed, and this letter was given to Alpatych with the order to submit it to the governor and, in case of danger, to return as soon as possible.
Indian National Congress(Hindi भारतीय राष्ट्रीय कांग्रेस ), Congress Party- the largest batch in India; the oldest political organization in India. Founded in . In the 15th convocation of the Lok Sabha (-), following the results of the general elections, the party is represented by the largest faction of 206 deputies.
Switched from loyal opposition to the English colonial regime in the 20s. XX century to an active struggle for national independence, turning into a mass party. The basis of the INC program was the principles of Gandhism. After India gained independence (1947), the INC was the ruling party until March 1977, returning to power in 1980-1989, 1991-1996. and in 2004-2014.
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Background
In the 80s of the 19th century, the socio-political situation in India and around it in the British ruling circles raised the question of creating a political organization of Indian patriots. The liberal Viceroy of India, Lord Ripon (1880-1884), supported the initiative of a group of Indian public figures in this matter. In his memorandum (December 25, 1882), he called for political changes in India to be brought from above within a constitutional framework.
“These measures will not only have the present result,” said the head of the British administration, “expressed in the gradual and safe introduction of political education among the population, which in itself is the object of politics, but will also pave the way for further progress in this area as this education will become more complete and widespread.”
Political activity
In December 1885, the founding congress of the Indian National Congress (INC), the first non-religious, essentially parliamentary, national organization in the history of the ancient country, took place in Bombay. In his address to the participants of this session, its chairman V. C. Banerjee expressed the following thought on the main tasks of the new party:
"The eradication of all racial, religious and national prejudices among the patriots of our country through direct friendly, personal intercourse with each other, and the development and consolidation of sentiments of national unity which took their direction during the unforgettable reign of Lord Ripon."
The resolutions of the forum of Indian patriots formulated the main demands of the congressists to the British government and parliament: the liquidation of the current Indian Affairs Council in London, the expansion of the composition of the Central Legislative Council under the Viceroy operating in India at the expense of the Indians, the need to carry out the same innovations in the provincial councils . Such partially elected bodies should be given the right to make inquiries and protests to the British House of Commons, where a standing committee should be formed to consider Indian problems. In addition, the delegates to the Bombay session of the INC proposed that Indian applicants should be given the right to fill positions in the Indian civil service in India, not only in London, but also in their homeland. It can be seen that in these claims of the INC leaders to the British government, the Congressists were very modest and did not go beyond the laws in force in their country.
The founders of the Congress - G. K. Gokhale, F. Mehta, S. Banerjee, D. Naoroji - were by no means against maintaining colonial rule. They worshiped the ideologists of British liberalism Macaulay, Gladstone, as well as the pillars of English utilitarianism Bentham and Mill.
The leadership of the INC launched vigorous political activities in India, as well as in the United Kingdom, seeking constitutional concessions. Various forms of parliamentary legal activity and personal connections were used. In 1892, the British House of Commons approved a new electoral law that expanded the rights of Indians to participate in curial elections to the central and local legislative bodies of British India. The Indian opposition now demanded the right to place its representatives in the lower house of the British Parliament and to seek through this representative body for India a status close to that of a British dominion through a series of political reforms over a long period of time.
D. Naoroji ran for the parliamentary seat from the Liberal Party of Britain. During the 1893 election campaign in England, he managed to enter the House of Commons. His passionate condemnation of the current system of government in India was heard more than once by British parliamentarians. A representative of the Bombay Parsi trading community advocated the establishment of equal and harmonious Indian-British relations.
Organizational structure
The highest body is a plenary session, held once every three years, between sessions - a working committee ( Working Committee), the highest bodies of local organizations - state committees, district committees, primary committees.
Indian National Congress (INC)(Congress, Indian National), ch. polit, party of India. Founded in 1885, it united representatives of the country's advanced intelligentsia, who sought to take a greater part in governing it in cooperation with the British and held annual congresses of their supporters. Later, in 1907, the party temporarily split into a more moderate wing and extremists (led by B. G. Tilak). After Tilak's death in 1920, the Congress under the leadership of M.K. Gandhi created a strong center, organization and a developed network of branches in the province. and districts, becoming a large mass party that carried out political campaigns for self-government and independence. In 1937, the INC easily won elections in most provinces. (8 out of 11), carried out in accordance with the Law on the Administration of India adopted by the English Parliament in 1935. In 1939, members of the INC left the government, and many others. The party leaders were arrested (1941) for organizing an anti-English campaign under the slogan “Get Out of India!” In 1945-47. Congress negotiated with Britain to grant India independence. The INC continued to play a leading role in independent India, headed by the Prime Minister. Java.harlal Nehru. After his death, a struggle began in the party between the “old guard” (the Syndicate) and the more radically minded young members of the party, the leader of which was Indira Gandhi. In 1969, the INC split into two factions, but I. Gandhi soon managed to re-establish them unite. In 1977, he suffered a heavy defeat from the Janataparthi ("People's Party"), led by Morarji Desai, who became prime minister (1977-79). new batch- "genuinely" Indian National Congress or INC(I) (where "I" stands for "Indira"). In 1979, she led the party to victory in the elections and again became prime minister. (1980). After the assassination of I. Gandhi in October. In 1984, her son Rajiv Gandhi (1944-91) was elected chairman of the INC (I), and he also became prime minister. (1984-89). In May 1991 he was also killed.
Excellent definition
Incomplete definition ↓
INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS
INK) is the largest bourgeois. political party of India. Basic on Dec. 1885. At the founding of the Congress, no clear program requirements and charter were developed. However, at the annual sessions of the party, held in different cities of the country, representatives of various provincial organizations developed general resolutions, which guided their activities. In the 80-90s. The INC did not go beyond the bounds of loyal opposition to the colonial regime. He expressed ch. arr. interests upper layers ind. bourgeoisie, nationalist-minded landowners and the most prosperous layers of the local intelligentsia. Its leaders - D. Naoroji, G. K. Gokhale, M. G. Ranade, S. N. Bannerjee and others - demanded increased participation of Indians in councils under the viceroy and governors, giving these councils the right to control finances and taxation , and for Indians - wider opportunities for admission to government. service. At the same time, the activities of the Congress are the first all-industrial. org-tion - contributed to the awakening of the national. Indian identity. At the 15th session of Congress on Dec. In 1899, the charter (constitution) of the INK was adopted, in which the fundamental principles were also formulated. software requirements. The purpose of the Congress was declared to be “promoting, through constitutional means, the growth of the well-being of the people of the Indian Empire.” The annual sessions of the party began to serve as the supreme body of the Congress; a center was created. The governing body is the INK Committee. Provincials were organized. to-you of the Congress. Prev. The INC was elected every year. In con. 19 and beginning 20th centuries A petty bourgeoisie was formed within the INK. democratic a direction whose supporters were called “extreme” (extremists). This direction was led by B. Tilak, B. Ch. Pal, L. L. Rai and others. The “extremes” advocated an active struggle against the colonies. yoke and called for the organization of mass national liberation. movements. At the INC session in Surat in 1907, a split occurred between the “extreme” and the “moderate”. The "extremes" believed that the goal of the Congress should be to achieve "swaraj" ("its rule") by organizing a mass movement. The “moderates” argued that self-government could only be achieved gradually, in cooperation with the English. by the authorities. Of the 1600 delegates approx. 900 supported the “moderates”, and approx. 700 came out in support of the “extremes”. However, the INC split was short-lived. The “extreme” were unable to create a cohesive organization; some of them began to deviate from their principles and join forces with the “moderates”; others took part in terrorist activities. activities of secret conspirators. groups. At the same time, the growing national The bourgeoisie increasingly needed mass support for its demands in the face of imperialism and sought to use the growing people. movement in one's own interests. In 1916, the “moderates” and “extremes” united again in the Congress. In the same year, at a session held in Lucknow, an agreement was concluded between the Congress and the Muslims. league on the joint struggle for India to achieve self-government “as an equal partner in the British Empire along with the self-governing dominions.” The rise of national liberation. movement in India in 1918-22 marked the beginning new era in the activities of the INC, which turned into a mass party. The leader and ideologist of the Congress was M.K. Gandhi, who returned to India from the South in 1915. Africa. Under hand Gandhi INC began to conduct mass campaigns of “non-violent non-cooperation” with the Anglo-Indian. authorities and the campaign of “civil disobedience” (see Satyagraha). On Dec. In 1920, at the Congress session in Nagpur, a new charter of the INC was adopted, which more clearly defined it as a political one. party. The purpose of the Congress was declared to be “the achievement of swaraj by peaceful and legal means.” All India The INK committee (created in 1912) was made up of representatives of the provincial committees; was formed (of 15 people, including chairman, secretary and treasurer) permanently functioning Worker's office Congress. According to the new provincial charter. you were not formed on the basis of territorial territory. division introduced by the colonialists, and in accordance with the adm. division by national a sign that Congress sought. The expanding scope of the class. struggle and mass anti-imperialist. The movement frightened the leadership of the Congress, which, trying to limit the revolutionary actions of the masses, adopted a resolution in Bardoli to end the campaign of “civil disobedience” (1922). The influence of the Congress has declined. A group of “Swarajists” strengthened within it, striving to limit the activities of the INC Parl. struggle. During the period of rise, national liberation. movement in 1927-33 in the INC, left-wing nationalism began to play an increasingly important role. movement led by J. Nehru and other leaders. During these years, the INC, which put forward the slogan of complete independence of India (1927), again expanded its influence. Under hand The Congress carried out massive campaigns of “civil disobedience” and launched a struggle against the religions incited by the colonialists. discord. Thousands of Congressists were thrown into prison, but the mass movement continued to grow. Fearing further growth active actions of workers and under the pressure of repression, rights. Congress leaders in control again called for a halt to the movement in May 1933. In 1934, the Socialist Congress arose within the INC. party. Its leadership stood on the position of reformism. The right-wing leaders of the party (N. Lohia, A. Mehta and others) sought to counter the growing influence of the Communist Party. parties. However, the most radical part of the Congress Socialists advocated cooperation with the communists. The struggle of the INC against the reactionaries. Constitution of 1935 and other anti-imperialist. the actions of the Congress were supported by the communists, who fought for a united anti-imperialist. front. The Congress again turned, despite the factional struggle that took place within it, into an anti-imperialist center. movements. During the 2nd World War, when a powerful anti-imperialist movement unfolded in the country. movement, the INC condemned fascism and declared its readiness to support England in the war only if there was a guarantee that India would be granted independence after its end and the creation of a national. made during the war. In 1942, the colonial authorities arrested almost all the leaders of the INC, which weakened the activities of the party (at the beginning of 1944, most of them were released). After the end of the war, the INC put forward a demand for immediate granting independence to India, in English. The imperialists, under the pressure of an unprecedented upsurge, will liberate. movements unfolding in the country were forced to accept. However, the leadership of the Congress, under pressure from the English. pr-va and Muslim. League agreed to the division of the country into India and Pakistan. In Ind. The union was formed by the INC government headed by J. Nehru. In April 1948 The new charter of the INC was approved, in which the party’s goal was declared “...improving the well-being and progressive development of the people of India and the creation by peaceful, legal means of a state of general welfare based on equality of opportunity, political, economic and social rights and striving for peace and friendship throughout the world." A member of Congress, according to the charter, can be anyone who has reached the age of 18, “believes in the purposes of the Congress,” and pays annual membership dues. New rules for nominating representatives to governing bodies were developed, and the network of primary organizations was expanded. The Congress government began to implement a number of progressive reforms. The agrarian reform carried out by the National Congress government undermines large landownership and promotes further development capitalism in the countryside. In 1948, the INC government, under pressure from the working class, adopted a number of labor laws that represented a certain step forward compared to the labor legislation of colonial India. However, repression against workers continued. Communist Party in many states was outlawed (until 1950-51). In the same year ind. Parliament passed a law prohibiting strikes of workers and government employees. enterprises and institutions. Worker at INK in Jan. 1948 published an appeal to all workers and employers calling for the establishment of " social world in industry", while it was indicated that strikes should be considered as "a challenge and a threat to society." Problems of developing an independent economy became the subject of disputes among various groups of the Congress. The group led by Nehru advocated industrialization and the creation of heavy industry under the leadership in the future, the role of the public sector. This group advocated the adoption of economic assistance from both capitalist and socialist countries. against cooperation in rural areas and the introduction of maximum land ownership. In 1955, at the INC session in Avadi, the slogan of building a “socialist society” was adopted, which was due to the popularity of the ideas of socialism, although the interpretation of socialism by the leaders of the INC differed from its scientific understanding after the advent. power, Congress began to pay more and more attention to the creation and strengthening of organizations operating under its leadership. The so-called Congress panchayats (non-party organizations in the village), the Youth Congress and a number of other societies were created (1952). org-tions, the activities of the INC in Ind. were strengthened. national Congress of Trade Unions, in women's Congress organizations. However, from the beginning. 1950s There was a tendency towards a decline in the influence of the INC. The party is weakened by factional infighting and corruption. In 1959, the Swatantra Party was formed in India, which included part of the rights. congressmen; in Congress the right is plural. issues are supported by the Swatantra Party and put pressure on the insufficiently united progressive forces. Reaction forces that strengthened during the period of aggravation of the Chinese-Indian conflict (autumn 1962), they are trying to force the INC government to abandon its neutralist position in foreign affairs. policy, which it began to adhere to since independence. In Nar. In the convening chamber of 1962, the INC received 375 seats out of 485. In 1963, by decision of the leadership of the Congress (adopted after the defeats suffered by the Congress in the additional elections held that year), 6 ministries of the center resigned. pr-va and 6 main ministries of states - members of the INC. This decision is motivated by the leadership of the Congress by the need to strengthen and “improve” the party; retired ministers should be transferred to leadership work. The All India session held in Jaipur (November 1963). Congressional Committee revealed deepening divisions within the party. At the INC session in Bhubaneswar (Jan. 1964), the resolution “Democracy and Socialism” was adopted, proposed by Nehru’s supporters and confirming the fundamentals. principles of congressional policy. The size of the Congress is approx. 10 million people, of which approx. 130 thousand active members (1963). K. Kamaraj was elected chairman of the INC in 1964. Theoretical organ - journal "Economic Review". Source: National Congress. Containing an account of its origin and growth, full text of all the presidential addresses, reprint of all the Congress resolutions..., Madras, (1909). Lit.: Reisner I.M., Essays on the class. struggle in India, part 1, M, (1932); New history of India, M., 1961; Contemporary history of India, M, 1959; Dyakov A.M., India during and after the Second World War (1939-1949), M., 1952; Sitaramayya Rattabhi B., The history of the Indian National Congress, v. 1-2, Bombay, 1946-47; Ramana Rao M. V., A short history of the Indian National Congress, Delhi, 1959. T. F. Devyatkina, A. I. Chicherov. Moscow.
Indian National Congress (INC) is the largest bourgeoisie. political party of India. Basic on Dec. 1885. At the founding of the Congress, no clear program requirements and charter were developed. However, at the annual sessions of the party, held in different cities of the country, representatives of various provincial organizations developed general resolutions, which guided their activities.
In 1916, the “moderates” and “extremes” united again in Congress. In the same year, at a session held in Lucknow, an agreement was concluded between the Congress and the Muslims. league on the joint struggle for India to achieve self-government “as an equal partner in the British Empire along with the self-governing dominions.” The rise of national liberation. movement in India in 1918-22 marked the beginning of a new era in the activities of the INC, which turned into a mass party. The leader and ideologist of the Congress was M.K. Gandhi, who returned to India from the South in 1915. Africa. Under hand Gandhi INC began to conduct mass campaigns of “non-violent non-cooperation” with the Anglo-Indian. authorities and the campaign of “civil disobedience” (Satyagraha - the concept of non-violent struggle).
On Dec. In 1920, at the Congress session in Nagpur, a new charter of the INC was adopted, which more clearly defined it as a political one. party. The purpose of the Congress was declared to be “the achievement of swaraj by peaceful and legal means.”
The expanding scope of the class. struggle and mass anti-imperialist. The movement frightened the leadership of the Congress, which, trying to limit the revolutionary actions of the masses, adopted a resolution in Bardoli to end the campaign of “civil disobedience” (1922). The influence of the Congress has declined. A group of “Swarajists” strengthened within it, striving to limit the activities of the INC Parl. struggle. During the period of rise, national liberation. movement in 1927-33 in the INC, left-wing nationalism began to play an increasingly important role. movement led by J. Nehru and other leaders. During these years, the INC, which put forward the slogan of complete independence of India (1927), again expanded its influence. Under hand The Congress carried out massive campaigns of “civil disobedience” and launched a struggle against the religions incited by the colonialists. discord. Fearing a further increase in the active actions of workers and under pressure from repression, the rights. Congress leaders in control again called for a halt to the movement in May 1933.
In 1934, the Socialist Congress arose within the INC. party. Its leadership stood on the position of reformism. The right-wing leaders of the party (N. Lohia, A. Mehta and others) sought to counter the growing influence of the Communist Party. parties. However, the most radical part of the Congress Socialists advocated cooperation with the communists.
The struggle of the INC against the reactionaries. Constitution of 1935 and other anti-imperialist. the actions of the Congress were supported by the communists, who fought for a united anti-imperialist. front. The Congress again turned, despite the factional struggle that took place within it, into an anti-imperialist center. Movements.
In the post-war period, M.K., who became its recognized leader, took over the leadership of the Congress. Gandhi, whose doctrine, which was based on the idea of satyagraha, i.e. nonviolent disobedience and resistance iya, has now become the official ideology of the organization (“Gandhism”). It should be noted here that the increased activity and influence of the Congress during the war years prompted the British to take another step towards granting limited self-government to India. A law passed by Parliament in 1919 strengthened the importance of elected Legislative Assemblies under the Viceroy and provincial governors and granted Indians the right to occupy minor ministerial posts in the colonial administration. True, at the same time, the Rowlett Act was passed, aimed against “anti-government activities.” Gandhi was one of the most strident and irreconcilable opponents of this law, and at his call in 1919, a wave of protests in the form of hartals (closing of shops, i.e., cessation of business activity) swept across India. Also in 1919, in Amritsar, the colonial authorities, following the letter of the new law, shot down a protest rally in cold blood (about a thousand participants were killed, another two thousand were wounded). The Amritsar massacre sparked a massive protest campaign in the country. In the wake of this protest, Gandhi decided to conduct his first all-Indian action of civil disobedience, which boiled down to a mass boycott of everything English - goods, educational institutions, courts, administration, elections, etc. The campaign, which took place in the form of rallies, hartals, and demonstrations, played a significant role important role in the formation and consolidation of an all-Indian national movement, which helped transform the Congress into a mass organization with millions of supporters and many tens of thousands of volunteer activists. In 1932, Gandhi advocated for civil rights and representation for India's "untouchables" (he began calling them Harijans, " God's people"). 1921 - 1934 Gandhi leader of the INC. He left because many did not support him on the issue of untouchables, but his ideas served to ensure that later in the Indian Constitution, untouchables were given equal rights with other citizens, and discrimination disappeared. Gandhi was killed. Now his ideology is leading in the INC.
Mohandas Karamchand "Mahatma" Gandhi (Hindi मोहनदास ंद गाँधी, October 2, 1869, Porbandar, Gujarat - January 30, 1948, New Delhi) - one of the leaders and ideologists of the movement for Indian independence from Great Britain. His philosophy of nonviolence (satyagraha) influenced movements for peaceful change.
His uncompromising struggle against caste inequality is also widely known. “One cannot limit oneself to the position of “as far as possible,” Gandhi taught, “when it comes to untouchability. If untouchability (the lowest castes in India) is to be driven out, it must be driven out completely both from the temple and from all other areas of life.”
Gandhi not only sought to end discrimination against untouchables through secular laws. He sought to prove that the institution of untouchability is in conflict with the Hindu principle of unity, and thus prepare Indian society for the fact that untouchables are equal members of it, like other Indians. Gandhi's struggle against untouchability, as with any inequality, also had a religious basis: Gandhi believed that initially all people, regardless of their race, caste, ethnicity and religious community, had an innate divine nature.
Long time Gandhi remained a consistent adherent of the principle of non-violence. However, then a situation arose when Gandhi's views were seriously tested. The principle of non-violence was adopted by the Congress (INC) for the freedom struggle of India. But Congress did not extend this principle to defense against external aggression.
- Features of the development of leading industrial countries in the 70-90s.
In the main countries of Western Europe, democracy was established. The last fascist regimes collapsed in the 1970s. In 1974, a revolution took place in Portugal, opening the way for democracy, and the military regime in Greece fell. In 1975, after the death of F. Franco, the dismantling of the fascist regime in Spain began and was successfully completed. In 1989, reforms began in South Africa, which subsequently led to the elimination of the apartheid regime.
In the 80s and 90s, in a number of developed Western countries political life Neoconservatism developed. He contributed to the weakening of government intervention in the economy, the development of social partnership, and the expansion of inter-economic ties.
In the second half of the 90s, leftist forces began to regain lost ground. After the spring 1997 parliamentary elections in England and then in France, leftist forces in Western Europe further strengthened their position. In 1997, out of a total of 15 member states of the European Union, 13 had center-left parties or coalitions involving socialists and communists at the helm of executive power.
Throughout the post-war years, the process of expanding suffrage was underway in Western countries. All types of political discrimination against blacks in the United States were abolished. New principles of relations between the government and the opposition were emerging, which are characterized not by confrontation, but by constructive dialogue.
An important feature of the post-war economic development of Western countries is rapid and dynamic progress in all spheres of the economy. The average annual growth rate of GNP (gross national product) in Germany and Italy increased 4 times, in France - more than doubled, in Great Britain - almost doubled. “Marshall Plan”, expansion of the domestic market, changes in consumption patterns, rapid growth international trade- all this happened important factors economic recovery.
Scientific and technological progress had a huge impact on post-war development. There was a qualitative restructuring of all sectors of the economy based on the introduction of the latest achievements of scientific and technological progress. Mass production of radio electronics products, new means of communication, plastics and artificial fibers began. Jet aviation and nuclear energy were developing rapidly, and the concern of states and governments was to support investments in the latest industries. Particular attention was paid to the development of fundamental and applied science. Consumer demand was stimulated.
The unevenness of economic development has led to a change in the balance of forces. Having made a powerful leap into economic development, Japan came in second place in the world. Germany became the first power in Europe. At the turn of the 70s and 80s, a change in economic priorities began. Even more significant changes in Western countries are associated with the technological revolution. Since the mid-70s, the problem of implementing profound qualitative changes in the structure of the economy, technological re-equipment of production based on the latest achievements of scientific and technological revolution has come to the fore. This process continues today, however, developed Western countries made a powerful breakthrough, primarily in the late 70s and 80s. Internationalization and modernization of production! Integration (example - the European Union). Information revolution (computers) - wider access to information.
Crises: food, environmental, raw materials, energy, monetary and financial.
The end of cultural isolation.
