Type of rubble formed during the complete destruction of buildings. Search and rescue work in rubble conditions. Stages of restoration work
Quite often, RPS has to be carried out in rubble conditions. A rubble is a chaotic accumulation building materials and structures, debris of technological equipment, sanitary devices, furniture, household utensils, stones.
The cause of the formation of rubble can be natural disasters (earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes, storms, collapses, landslides, mudflows), impacts natural factors, leading to aging and corrosion of materials (atmospheric moisture, groundwater, subsidence soils, sudden changes in air temperature), errors at the design and construction stage, violations of facility operation rules, military actions. The degree of damage to buildings depends on the strength of the destructive factor, the duration of its impact, the seismic resistance of structures, the quality of construction, and the degree of wear (aging) of buildings.
According to the degree of destruction of buildings, rubble is divided into five types.
1. Light damage: thin cracks appear on the walls of buildings, crumbling
plaster, small pieces break off, glass in the windows is damaged.
2. Weak destruction: no large cracks in the walls, they chip off quite
large pieces of plaster, cracks appear in chimneys ah, some of them times
collapses, the roof is partially damaged, the glass in the windows is completely broken.
3. Moderate destruction: large cracks in the walls of buildings, collapse of smokestacks
pipes, partial roof fall.
4. Severe destruction: collapse of internal partitions and walls, breaks in walls
nah, collapse of parts of buildings, destruction of connections between parts of buildings, collapse
roofs.
5. Complete destruction.
The rubble can be continuous or isolated (local). The volume of rubble from the destruction of residential buildings is 35-50%, industrial - 15-20% of the construction volume. The height of the rubble of residential buildings is 1/5-1/7, industrial - 1/4-1/10 of their original height. The average slope angle of the rubble is 30°. The volume of voids in the rubble is 40-60%.
The rubble is conventionally divided into reinforced concrete and brick. Reinforced concrete rubble consists of fragments of reinforced concrete, concrete, metal and wooden structures, debris brickwork, elements of technological equipment. They are characterized by the presence of a large number of large elements, often interconnected, voids and unstable elements.
Brick rubble consists of brick blocks, broken bricks, plaster, fragments of reinforced concrete, metal, wooden structures. They are characterized by high density, the absence of large, as a rule, elements and voids.
The formation of blockages is accompanied by damage to electrical, thermal, gas, plumbing and other systems. This creates the risk of fires, explosions, flooding, and electric shock. The rubble of industrial buildings in which production or storage is carried out is especially dangerous. hazardous substances.
The destruction of buildings and the formation of rubble is usually accompanied by death, blocking, and injury to people. Of all those injured in the rubble, approximately 40% receive minor injuries, 20% receive moderate injuries, and the same percentage receive severe and extremely severe injuries and mutilations.
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Degree of destruction of buildings:
a - slight damage; b - weak; c - average; g - strong; d - complete destruction
Victims may be in the upper, middle, lower parts of the rubble, in blocked basements and underground protective structures, technological underground and in the premises of the first floors. IN in some cases they can remain on different floors of partially destroyed rooms, in niches and voids, on roofs.
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Organization and conduct of search and rescue operations
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Typical scheme for organizing RPS during the destruction of buildings and structures:
1 - cordoning off the emergency area by the traffic police, checkpoints on the roads;
2 - cordoning off the emergency zone by law enforcement agencies and
RPS facility; 3 - management headquarters (OG EMERCOM of the Russian Federation);
4-point of provision medical care easily injured;
5 - point for providing medical assistance to seriously injured people;
6 - victim identification area; 7 - first aid station with
routing of victims; 8 - path for through traffic
ambulance mobiles; 9 - path for through traffic
fire service vehicles and construction equipment;
10 - entry and exit coordination point; 11 - rest point
rescuers; 12 - heating point for rescuers; 13- pita point
lifeguard training; 14 - reserve forces; 15 - collection point for found items
documents and valuables; 16 - equipment reserve; 17 - platform behind
corrections of fuel and lubricants equipment; 18 - forces and means necessary ava
military services; 19 - work areas; 20 - emergency facility
Almost all the rubble ends up with people, some of them die immediately, some are injured. In the first day after an emergency, in the absence of first aid, approximately 40% of the victims die in the rubble. After 3-4 days after the formation of the blockage, the living people in it begin to die from thirst, cold, and injuries. After 7-10 days, there are practically no living people left in the rubble.
Search and rescue operations in rubble conditions begin with reconnaissance, for which you should:
Establish the emergency zone and its nature;
Determine the location and condition of the victims;
Assess the condition of objects in the emergency zone (buildings, communications, engineering
systems);
Determine the presence of fires, radioactive, chemical, bacterial
gical contamination, toxic and explosive substances, prevent them from
negative impact on people, eliminate or localize;
Determine locations for laying access roads, installing equipment, and evacuation routes
ations of victims;
Establish constant monitoring of the condition of the blockage.
Before starting RPS in the rubble, you must:
- turn off the power supply, gas supply, water supply;
- check the condition of the remaining structures, overhanging elements
tov, walls;
- inspect the interior;
- make sure there is no danger, create safe working conditions
bots;
- determine escape routes in case of danger
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The technology for carrying out R&D in the rubble includes the following main stages.
Stage No. 1. Study and analysis of the situation, assessment of the degree of destruction, establishment of the destruction zone, marking. Assessment of the stability of buildings and structures. Organization of safe working conditions for rescuers.
Stage No. 2. Providing prompt assistance to victims located on the surface of the rubble.
Stage No. 3. Thorough search for victims using all available means and search methods.
Stage No. 4. Partial dismantling of the rubble using heavy equipment to provide assistance to the victims.
Stage No. 5. General dismantling (clearing) of the rubble after removing all victims.
An important element AKP organization in the rubble is marking. Basic
The markings are presented below.
□ - the building has access and is safe for carrying out RPS. The damage is minor. The likelihood of further destruction is low;
0 - the structure has significant damage, some areas are safe, others require strengthening or destruction;
^ - the building is dangerous for carrying out R&D;
< -стрелка рядом с квадратом указывает направление к безопасному входу в строение.
The search for victims in the rubble is carried out in the following main ways: visually, according to eyewitnesses, with the help of search dogs, with the help of special devices.
After conducting reconnaissance and ensuring safe working conditions, rescuers begin dismantling the rubble to provide assistance to the victims. First of all, PSRs are carried out in those places where living people are found. There are two main methods used: dismantling the rubble from top to bottom; making a hole in the rubble.
When carrying out R&D in rubble, the following tools, devices, machines and mechanisms are most often used.
Hydraulic tools: jaw spreaders, expanders, jacks, hydraulic cylinders.
Electric tools: electric chain and circular saws, angle grinders.
Entrenching tools: crowbars, shovels, picks, saws.
Machinery and mechanisms: truck cranes of various lifting capacities, excavators, loaders, bulldozers, trucks.
To obtain sound information during RPS in the rubble, it is necessary to organize a so-called “HOUR OF SILENCE”. At the command of the manager in the emergency zone, all work is stopped, traffic is stopped, and all working machines and mechanisms are turned off. Only rescuers with equipment for searching for victims, dog handlers with dogs, and “listeners” remain in the rubble. The duration of the “hour of silence” is 15-20 minutes. During the day, the “hour of silence” can be announced several times. The “Hour of Silence” was successfully used by rescuers of the Russian Ministry of Emergency Situations during R&D in the conditions of rubble after the earthquake in the village of Neftegorsk
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Dismantling of the rubble from above is carried out to provide assistance to victims who are in the upper part of the rubble and have free access to them. The rubble is removed manually using crowbars, shovels, and scoops. To lift and move large and heavy elements of the blockage, lifting equipment (jacks, winches, cranes) is used. At the same time, it is necessary to exclude the possibility of sudden movement of elements of the rubble, which could cause additional suffering to the victims. Once the victims are freed, they are treated and transported to safety.
Often the victims are located deep in the rubble. To extract them, rescuers make a special narrow passage (manhole), taking into account the shortest distance to people, in the most easily surmountable areas of the rubble. It is not recommended to make a hole in the immediate vicinity of large blocks, as they can settle and make work difficult. The hole is made in horizontal, inclined and vertical directions. Optimal width manhole - 0.8-0.9 m, height - 0.9-1.0 m. Work on the manhole construction is carried out by several groups (3-4 people each) manually or using tools. Their task includes dismantling the rubble, making a hole, preparing and installing fastening elements, removing recoverable debris, unblocking victims, and transporting them. When constructing a manhole, rescuers move on all fours, crawling, lying on their backs, on their stomachs, on their sides. If the movement of rescuers is impeded by large reinforced concrete, metal, wood, or brick products, then they must be bypassed; if this is not possible, then they must be destroyed; in some cases, a hole can be made in them.
When constructing a manhole, special attention should be paid to its reliable fastening in order to prevent the collapse of the walls. For this purpose, a special, pre-prepared fastening material, - racks, spacers, boards, beams, shields, crossbars, struts.
When constructing a manhole, movement of rescuers and equipment along the top of the rubble is not allowed.
After completing work on constructing the manhole and securing the passage, rescuers begin to free the people. First of all, the condition of the victim and the degree of his injury are determined. Then the pressed or pinched parts of the body are released with the simultaneous application of tourniquets and compressive bandages, the oral and nasal cavities are cleaned, and small debris, debris, and rubble are removed from the victim by hand. Depending on the physical condition of the victim, the method of extraction and transportation is selected.
At least two rescuers must free the victim from the rubble. If such an opportunity exists, then he is pulled out by the arms or the upper shoulder girdle. If this cannot be done, then rescuers place their hands under his shoulder girdle and lower back and only then carefully release the victim. Sometimes it is advisable to use a thick cloth to position the victim or stretcher.
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If the victim is under large and heavy elements of the blockage, then he is freed with the help of spreaders, jacks, and lifting equipment. In cases where the victim is pinned to the ground, he can be freed by digging.
Injuries typical for people caught in rubble include fractures, bruises, and concussions. A specific injury is considered to be prolonged compression of muscles and internal organs - long-term compartment syndrome.
This type of injury is characterized by cessation of blood flow and metabolism in compressed areas of the body, which leads to intensive formation and accumulation of toxic breakdown products, tissue destruction, and the formation of under-oxidized metabolic products. When a compressed area of the body is released and blood circulation is restored, a huge amount of toxins enter the body. It directly depends on the area of the affected areas and the time of compression. Along with the outflow of toxins from the affected areas, a large amount of blood plasma (sometimes 3-4 liters) rushes to these places. The limbs sharply increase in volume, the contours of the muscles are disrupted, the swelling acquires maximum density, which causes pain. The described redistribution of toxins and blood plasma leads to inhibition of the activity of all body systems and is the cause of death of the victim in the first minutes after release from the rubble.
Simultaneously with the formation of toxic substances, molecules are formed in the affected muscles myoglobin. Together with the blood, they enter the kidneys, damaging their tubules, which can cause death from kidney failure.
To save the life of a victim during prolonged compression of tissues, it is necessary to inject plasma-containing solutions into his blood before release, give plenty of warm drinks, and apply cold to the damaged areas. Immediately after release, the compressed surface should be tightly bandaged, which will reduce swelling and limit the volume of redistributed plasma. Regardless of the presence or absence of damaged bones, splints are applied, cold and painkillers are used, and the issue of delivering the victim to a medical institution, which must have an “artificial kidney” apparatus, is promptly resolved.
It is very important for a rescuer to know exact time the beginning of compression, since during the first two hours the consequences of this injury are reversible and harmless to humans. During this time, rescuers must free as many people as possible.
A rational method of providing assistance to victims of long-term compression syndrome is the following.
1. During the first 2 hours after the start of the disaster, it is necessary to mobilize all
forces and means to release victims from compression, which will ensure fresh
minimizing the development of toxicosis.
2. After 2 hours, all victims should be divided into 2 groups (mild and severe
yellow forms of injury). The nature of the injury is determined by the mass of compressed tissues
and the general condition of the victim.
Victims with mild injuries should be quickly released from compression and sent to a medical facility.
Victims with severe trauma must be released from compression so as not to stimulate blood circulation in damaged tissues during transportation. It is necessary to provide assistance slowly, consistently performing pain relief, introducing plasma-containing solutions into the body, using plenty of fluids, bandaging the affected limb, cooling, tourniquet, and splints.
3. Seriously ill patients require intensive care therapy and surgery.
Therefore, they should be sent to inpatient treatment facilities.
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If it is impossible to transport a seriously ill patient to a medical facility, then amputation of the limb should be started on the spot without removing the tourniquet, having obtained the consent of the victim.
The described technique allows you to prevent the development of toxicosis and save the lives of as many victims as possible.
Partially destroyed buildings and structures remain in the emergency zone. They pose a potential hazard due to possible sudden collapse. These structures must be strengthened with special devices (stops, supports, struts) or collapsed. Collapse is carried out in three main ways using:
Hammerball;
Traction device (winches, tractors, machines);
Blasting operations must be carried out by specially trained rescuers. The areas where these works are carried out must be fenced.
Many buildings and structures are equipped with basements, shelters, and technological undergrounds in which people may find themselves. The resulting rubble, as a rule, closes exits, impedes air access, and makes it impossible for people to escape from these shelters on their own. The duties of rescuers include:
Searching for littered shelters;
Finding out the situation inside the shelter (number of people, their condition,
stump damage and shelter, availability of water, food, medicine);
Organizing the supply of air, water, food, medicines, dressings to the shelter
materials, protective equipment;
Clearing, opening shelters, evacuating victims, providing assistance to them.
The search for littered shelters is carried out using plans of the city, district,
streets, by external signs (air intake pipes), by sound signals (screaming, groaning, knocking), using dogs.
After finding a shelter, contact is established with the victims (voice, tapping, radio or telephone communication). At the same time, rescuers begin clearing and opening shelters. First of all, they are released and dis-
The locations of hatches, doors, heads, openings, and air intake pipes are cleaned. If this is not possible, then rescuers punch holes in the wall or ceiling. These works are carried out using a concrete breaker, a jackhammer, a hammer drill, a crowbar, a sledgehammer, a chisel, and a shovel. The holes are used to supply air, water, food, and medicine. Once expanded, they are used to evacuate people.
| Wall collapse by explosion |
When carrying out R&D work in rubble, machines and mechanisms are often used. With their help, passages and passages are cleared, heavy structural elements are moved and collapsed, rescuers and victims move.
Work to rescue people in partially destroyed ground structures at height begins with inspection and checking the degree of damage to external main walls and overhanging structures, interior spaces, determining the location of people and the possibility of their evacuation. If necessary, walls, beams, trusses, and ceilings are strengthened by installing supports, racks, braces, and braces. The main means of lifting rescuers to heights is a ladder.
Making a hole in the shelter wall
When using a ladder you must:
Install and secure it securely;
Place your foot on the step with the middle or front of your foot;
Cover the steps or side posts of the stairs with your fingers; - hold
body body closer to the stairs;
Turn your knees behind the side posts of the stairs;
Move smoothly without swaying.
The movement of rescuers along stairs is carried out in a one-way or diagonal manner. One way way consists of simultaneously moving the right leg and right arm or the left leg and left arm to the next step. The diagonal method involves simultaneously moving the right leg and left arm or the left leg and right arm to the next step.
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Organization and conduct of search and rescue operations
Making a hole in the ceiling
You need to move along securely fastened ladders, equipped with anti-slip stops, grips and installed on reliable lower and upper supports. The safe installation angle is 75°. Stairs are usually walked up or down one at a time.
The rescuer's transition from the stairs to the window (opening) is carried out as follows. Having climbed the stairs to the level of the window sill (the lower edge of the opening), holding onto the stairs with one hand, you should stand with your foot on the window sill (the edge of the opening) and at the same time, holding the edge of the partition with your other hand, move your leg from the stairs and lower yourself to the floor.
If the window is closed or barred, the rescuer must secure himself to the ladder at the level of the window, open it and then enter the room.
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Chapter 3
Organization and conduct of search and rescue operations
The transition from the stairs to the roof is performed in this order. The rescuer climbs the ladder slightly above the level of the roof eaves. Holding the ladder with his hand (if there is a gutter, by it), he places one foot on the roof, then the other.
To move from a window (opening) and from the roof to the stairs, the rescuer must go to the upper end of the stairs, grab the top step from the outside with one hand, press against the stairs, turn 180° to face the stairs, put one foot on the step, grab the other hold the step with your hand and move your other leg onto the step.
Rescuers can ascend to the upper floors of buildings using an assault ladder. It has 13 steps and is equipped with a special hook with teeth, with which it is secured to the window sill (opening).
Installation of an assault ladder into a second floor window is carried out by lifting it and securing it with a hook to the window sill with right side window. After hanging the ladder, the rescuer begins climbing it. When going out onto the windowsill, the right leg should be in position on the ninth (tenth) step, hands on the thirteenth step. Holding the step with your hands, you need to move your left leg over the window sill and sit astride it, straighten your right leg, and go into the room.
Rescuers ascend to the third and subsequent floors in the following order. Sitting on a windowsill right hand you need to grab the side stand above the twelfth step or this step, with your left - the hook or three-
Evacuation of victims from a partially destroyed building:
1 - by helicopter; 2 - mechanical lift; 3 - along the assault ladder; 4 - along ropes; 5 - by ladders; 6 - through the hole
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Organization and conduct of search and rescue operations
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the eleventh step. With a strong jerk with both hands and extension of the body, lift the ladder and turn it with a hook towards you, moving your hands alternately along the side stand, raise the ladder until the hook position is 15-20 cm above the window sill, turn the ladder with the hook into the window and hang it on the right half of the window.
Evacuation of victims from the upper floors of buildings using ropeways
The transition from the window sill to the stairs is carried out in the following order:
Place your right foot on the first step;
Grasp the fourth (fifth) step with your left hand inside;
With your right hand, grab the fifth (sixth) step from the outside and under
stretch until your right leg is straightened, place your left leg on the windowsill near the side
howl of the rack;
Pushing off the window sill with your left foot and pulling yourself up with your right leg
put it on the third (fourth) step and continue climbing.
Upon reaching a given floor, the rescuer must sit on the window sill, lower his left leg to the floor, grab the hook with his left hand and move his right leg out the window.
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Descending the assault ladder is carried out in the following order:
Move your right leg over the window sill;
Sit on the windowsill astride;
Grasp the top step with your hands;
Place your right foot on the ninth (tenth)
step;
Straighten your body and move your left leg to
tenth (ninth) step;
Go down the stairs to the one below
windowsill;
Move your left leg over the window sill and sit down
riding on him;
With your right hand, grab the left side post above the third step, left
with your hand - behind the right side pillar above the same step;
Raise the ladder, turn it with a hook towards you, moving your hands over the side stands
ki, lower the ladder until the hook is above your head, turn the ladder with the hook in
window and hang it on the windowsill;
Go out onto the stairs and lower yourself to the ground;
Grasp the side racks above the third step, raise the ladder 15-20
cm, disengage the hook from the window sill, lower the ladder.
To save people trapped on the roof, rescuers climb to them using:
Ladders (attached, assault, retractable, hinged, rope);
Rope systems;
Special lifts;
Surviving flights of stairs, fire escapes, structures.
In some cases, a helicopter is used to rescue people trapped on the roof.
One of my clients has a greenhouse in her house in the Gifts of Fortune zone. She used to take all her unnecessary things there.
This lady was an excellent doctor, but could not earn enough money to support herself. By cleaning out the greenhouse and planting flowers in it, she saw her income increase significantly.
Another woman has accumulated a lot of rubbish in the Relationship area. All the men she attracted in her life were burdened with problems. Having cleared this area of debris, she finally found a man with whom she was able to establish a strong relationship.
If there are probably weak ones in your life sides, check if the corresponding area in your home is not littered with all sorts of rubbish!
Your front entrance
Keep this area completely clean. The front entrance to your home symbolizes your approach to the world, looking outward, and your approach to your own life, looking inward.
When the first thing you see when entering your home is a pile of trash, your energy level drops before you even cross the threshold. Some people like to hang all their outerwear and put their shoes in a tiny space outside the entrance of course the door(see source) . This is definitely not a good idea.
Others like to put things near the entrance so as not to forget to take them out of the house, and this ends up with them having to constantly step over the resulting rubble. This is how you create tension for yourself.
An amazing number of people care about environment, use the front area of their home as a place to store old newspapers, magazines, cans and plastic bottles, which are then recycled.
By keeping all this in sight, you are making a statement (no matter how unconscious it may be) that your approach to life is to constantly repeat situations of the past.
This can relate to ideas, problems, illnesses, relationships with people and so on. This means you never learn a lesson the first time. Repetition in itself is not a bad thing. However, why admire this rubbish without even crossing the threshold of your home?
Behind the doors
Doors that don't open all the way restrict the flow of energy in your life. I have been in houses where so much rubbish accumulated behind the doors that people had to squeeze through narrow cracks. Remove anything that prevents the doors from opening fully, including clothing hanging behind them.
Corridors
These are the arteries of your home. Clutter in the hallway and corridors interferes with the flow of life energy and puts obstacles in your path. As a result, you are more likely to trudge through life like an old nag than to enjoy a stroll. Keep all aisles clear.
If you can't avoid clutter, at least remove debris from the floor. Many people suffering from depression keep all sorts of nasty things on the floor, which constantly(source not specified) “grounds” their energy.
Under the beds
The piles of junk under your bed are affecting the quality of your sleep. If you sleep on a bed with drawers, then it is best to keep them only pure bed sheets. To sleep well, remove everything from your bedroom except the bed itself!
On cabinets
Debris hidden from view on cabinets is like problems hanging over you, awaiting a solution. They reduce your ability to think clearly and clearly. If you stack things on top of your bedroom closet, it probably has an impact. influence(source not specified) on your dream.
You'll have a hard time waking up if the first thing that catches your eye in the morning is the storage on top of your closet. When you have a lot of rubble in your home, hidden somewhere high up, it will have an overall overwhelming effect on you. In addition, you may be suffer for headaches.
Get rid of unnecessary clothes
Do you have clothes that you haven’t worn for a long time, but keep “probably just in case”? happening(source not specified) "?
One woman said at my seminar that when her husband received the settlement, they decided to go crazy and buy her two really nice suits “in case” they never had more(source not specified) there will not be enough money to purchase something like that.
Two years have passed since then, and she has never worn one of these costumes. She believes that the money was thrown away.
Some people keep things they haven't worn for 20 years. They say that if you keep them long enough, they will come back into fashion. My advice to you: if you have never worn an item for Last year, not to mention, if you haven't worn it for two or three years in a row, part with it, sell it, trade it, burn it, or just throw it away.
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A rubble is a chaotic accumulation of materials, structures, equipment, furniture, stones, technical devices, etc. How to protect people in case of rubble and how to organize it? This is what will be discussed in this article.
Contents of search and rescue operations in rubble conditions
Causes of blockages
The main reasons for the formation of rubble are natural, such as floods, earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides, hurricanes, storms, landslides, the impact of natural factors on the aging and corrosion of materials, errors in construction or during operation of the facility, and military actions. The degree of destruction is influenced by the strength of the destructive factor, exposure time, duration, seismic resistance of structures, quality of construction, time of construction of the structure.
Main types of rubble
Rubbles are divided into two types: continuous and isolated (local). Debris in the proportion of the total construction volume is up to 50% (residential buildings - 35-50%, industrial - 15-20%). The rubble can be reinforced concrete or brick. The first ones consist of fragments of concrete, reinforced concrete, wood and metal structures, equipment debris. Their peculiarity is the presence of connected large elements, voids, and unstable parts. Brick rubble mainly consists of large blocks and broken bricks, structural debris, and plaster. Often with such collapses there are no large elements and voids; they have a high density.
When debris falls, electrical, heat, gas, plumbing and other systems are damaged, which can lead to a fire, explosion or flooding. The most dangerous are debris in industrial buildings where hazardous substances are produced or stored.
When buildings are destroyed and rubble is blocked, people are injured and killed. Victims end up in the upper or lower part of the rubble, end up in basements or on the first floors.
Search and rescue work in rubble conditions
Where should search and rescue operations begin? First, you need to conduct reconnaissance, which includes:
- establishing the zone and nature of the emergency;
- determining the location of the victims and their condition;
- assessment of the condition of objects located in the emergency zone;
- determination of the presence of fires, chemically hazardous and explosive substances;
- laying access roads and installing equipment to ensure the evacuation of people from the rubble.
Assistance to victims, evacuation of people
To provide assistance to victims, you need to dismantle the rubble from above or make a hole in the rubble.
Removing the rubble
The rubble is dismantled from above so that victims located at the top of the rubble can be reached and accessed. Small elements are lifted manually, and lifting equipment is used to move large and heavy elements: winches, jacks, cranes. Will need it. After releasing the victims, they need to be given first aid and transported to a safer place.
Manhole devicein the rubble
Often, when a collapse occurs, the victims are located in the depths. To extract them from there, rescuers make a special hole - a narrow passage. The hole is not made close to large boulders, so that they do not settle and complicate the work of rescuers. The hole can be made in three directions: horizontal, vertical and inclined. Optimal sizes: width – 0.8-0.9 m, height – 0.9-1.0 m.
To construct a manhole, several groups of rescuers of 3-4 people are involved. They dismantle the rubble, clear the passage, install fastening elements, remove debris, remove victims, and transport them to the place of assistance.
Rescuers move along the passage on all fours or lying down. If there are large reinforced concrete, wooden, metal, brick elements, they must be bypassed or destroyed. When making a manhole, you need to pay primary attention to its reliable fastening in order to prevent the walls from collapsing. For this purpose it is used special tool: spacers, racks, beams, boards, shields, crossbars, struts.
Before removing the victim from the rubble, it is necessary to assess his condition and the degree of injury. If necessary, tourniquets and compressive bandages are applied to the pressed or pinched parts. The method of extracting and transporting the victim depends on his physical condition. If the victim is crushed by large elements, you need to free him using spreaders, jacks or lifting equipment.
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Causes and types of tunnel destruction
Destruction of tunnels can occur during construction or operation.
IN during the construction process the causes of destruction and collapses are either an incorrect assessment and insufficient knowledge of the engineering and geological conditions of the location of the tunnels, or the choice of incorrect methods for the construction of the tunnel or their low quality. The hydrogeological features of the massif that contribute to the occurrence of destruction and landslides include: the presence of weak water-bearing and water-saturated soils such as quicksand; inclined and horizontal bedding of soils and the presence of sliding planes in them in the form of wetted thin clay layers; the presence of fault, landslide and landslide areas, as well as karst formations in the tunnel area; severe cracking of soils.
Most characteristic shortcomings construction causing emergency situations in tunnel workings are: untimely installation of temporary support; prolonged idle time on temporary supports of certain sections of a long-distance tunnel; installation of supports of insufficient load-bearing capacity; deviation from approved projects; low quality of work.
IN destruction of tunnels during operation can occur either as a result of the lining design not meeting the existing loads, or as a result of deliberate destruction. Inconsistency between the structure and the current loads most often leads to gradual damage and increased deformation of the lining. In this case, it is usually possible to prevent destruction and collapses in the tunnel through appropriate measures. However, in the practice of operating tunnels, there are still cases of major destruction, the main reasons for which are: non-compliance with accepted constructive solutions actual hydrogeological conditions; deviations during the construction process from the adopted design decisions; increase in rock pressure; formation of voids behind the lining and rock collapses as a result of the impact groundwater; chemical and thermal effects of locomotives, which enhance weathering processes and create preconditions for collapses in unlined tunnels; sudden shifts and landslides due to the instability of the tunnel mass; exposure to seismic forces on the tunnel.
Caused by the above reasons, the destruction of the tunnel along its length can be general or local. Usually you have to deal with the destruction of individual areas located near portals or inside a tunnel. The degree of destruction of the structure, in turn, can be complete or partial.
A pile of collapsed rock, lining fragments and equipment and structures buried in them, completely or partially filling a tunnel section, is called a blockage. Depending on the nature of the spread of the collapse and its size There are the following types of blockages:
- open rubble(collapse without separation), in which the collapse zone reaches the surface of the earth (Fig. 8.14, a);
- closed blind dam(blind blockage with separation), in which a collapse arch is formed above the tunnel, and the rock fills the entire transverse profile of the tunnel (Fig. 8.14, b);
- closed blockage(blockage with separation), in which a collapse arch is formed above the tunnel with partial filling of the transverse profile of the tunnel with rock (Fig. 8.14, c);
- closed transition type dam, when on one side it looks like a blind blockage, and on the other side, the transverse profile of the tunnel is partially filled with rock (Fig. 8.14, d).
Rice. 8.14 - Main types of rubble
The arch of the shaft or the so-called “dome” may have different shape and the degree of stability, depending on the engineering geological conditions and the reasons that caused the destruction of the tunnel. Sometimes a collapse after covering individual overhanging pieces of rock does not threaten further collapse. Much more often, a temporary stabilization of a fall occurs with its subsequent development due to the collapse of the soil in in certain places in the form of small or large pieces and even blocks with a volume of up to 1.0-1.5 m 3. In soft soils, with the formation of closed rubble, unstable stabilization of the rockfall occurs, which threatens further collapse of large masses of soil and even its transition to an open rubble. All this poses a great danger when restoring such tunnels.
Stages of restoration work
Restoration of the destroyed section or the entire tunnel can begin only after an appropriate survey has been carried out. The objective of the technical survey is to collect the necessary data for the correct determination of a rational restoration option, its successful implementation and subsequent operation of the tunnel.
In the case of restoration of destruction that occurred during the construction process, using the design estimates and other documents available for construction, it is possible to comprehensively establish the hydrogeological characteristics of the massif, analyze the organization and order of work, identify the causes of destruction and select the most rational restoration option. First of all, under all circumstances, measures should be taken to stabilize the collapse that has occurred. prevent its further spread. To do this, it is necessary to strengthen the support of nearby sections of the tunnel, build jumpers when quicksand penetrates into the tunnel, etc. It should also be borne in mind that the project for organizing work to restore the destroyed section must be drawn up in such a way that simultaneously with the elimination of the consequences of the accident it is possible would resume work on further construction of the tunnel. For this purpose, additional bypass adits, shafts or other auxiliary workings can be made.
When restoring damage that occurred in exploited tunnels, the necessary technical documentation may be missing. Then, along with collecting general information about the engineering-geological conditions of time and the method of tunnel construction and other data, special attention should be paid to the study of the destroyed section of the tunnel. It is necessary to clarify the physical-mechanical and engineering-geological characteristics of the soil in the rubble, the stability of the new state of rock equilibrium and the expected rock pressure, the nature and size of the destruction, the condition of the lining and its size both in the destroyed and in the adjacent section of the tunnel. Based on the surveys carried out, the most rational option for restoring the tunnel is selected, and the sequence and phasing of work is determined.
Complete restoration of the tunnel, eliminating all consequences of destruction and bringing it to a condition that would satisfy modern conditions operation requires significant investment of time and money. However, due to the need to urgently open traffic on this section of the line, the time spent on restoration should be minimal, so the restoration of tunnels can be carried out under certain conditions in two stages.
Temporary recoverytunnels produced according to simplified technical conditions. At this first stage of work, the tunnel is cleared at the site of the blockage, the section is secured with temporary reliable support (Fig. 8.15) according to the established dimensions and the superstructure of the track is laid. When restoring single-track tunnels, the internal outline of the temporary lining is usually taken to coincide with the external outline of the destroyed tunnel lining, which makes it possible to restoration work to limit ourselves only to the construction of a permanent lining, without resorting to work to expand the tunnel opening. In areas with partial destruction of the lining, metal circles can be used as temporary load-bearing structures. Temporary restoration of double-track tunnels is usually carried out under one track with excavation in the area of the blockage of a working of limited profile.
Rice. 8.15 - Temporary lining of metal three-hinged arches: 1 - wooden beams; 2 - anchored bolt; 3 - metal supporting arch
Major restoration must ensure conditions for constant normal operation of the structure and be carried out in accordance with current standards and technical specifications. Major restoration without an intermediate stage of work is advisable only if the timing and scope of work differ little from those required for temporary restoration.
Temporary recovery
The choice of one or another method of eliminating rubble depends mainly on its type, as well as the degree of soil stability.
Elimination of open rubble, in which the collapse zone reaches the ground surface, is carried out using one of the following methods. The use of one method or another is determined by the nature of the tunnel destruction.
At the rubble site Only the vault was destroyed, but the walls were preserved. In this case, first they pass the upper adit in a section up to 6 m long and open the calotte. Then install metal load-bearing circles (2) (Fig. 8.16) and remove the blockage with ledges.
Rice. 8.16 - Scheme of installation of support at the initial stage of restoration of a single-track tunnel: 1 - safety circles; 2 - metal load-bearing circles; 3 - blockage; 4 - marchevans (puff); 5 - runs; 6 - spacer
Location on the obstruction lining is completely destroyed or has not yet been erected. In this case, work also begins with driving the upper adit and opening the calotte, but then developing a profile for the walls in the trenches. Next, metal bearing circles (3) (Fig. 8.17) are installed along the outer contour of the excavation or a permanent lining is erected. The work is completed by developing the core and restoring the upper structure of the track. This type of blockage can also be eliminated using the support core method with the installation of a temporary metal lining from circular arches with plank cladding or the construction of a permanent lining.
Rice. 8.17 - Scheme for developing a tunnel profile when the entire lining is destroyed: 1 - longarins; 2 - pillars; 3 - metal load-bearing circles
Happened in the tunnel breaking through a large amount of water-saturated soil. Restoration work in this case is carried out using special methods using compressed air, freezing or another method of artificially fixing soils. The question may even arise about the advisability of bypassing the breakthrough zone or even changing the route of the entire tunnel.
Elimination of closed rubble carried out depending on the height of the fall and the degree of its stability. Restoration can be carried out without first laying the “dome” or with its first securing.
Restoration work without preliminary laying the “dome” carried out if the shaft arch is in a stable state. Work is then carried out using one of the following methods.
Debris clearing without protective devices is carried out in hard soils with stable stabilization of the natural arch of the ruin. Before clearing the rubble, a thorough ruffle of the “dome” is done. During temporary restoration, the lining is not restored, and the surface of the fallout is sometimes secured with shotcrete.
Clearing the rubble under the protection of a mobile structure is advisable when individual small bushes of soil may fall. In the tail part, the structure rests on the installed and backfilled frames (1) (Fig. 8.18) of the temporary lining, and in the head part - on the blockage (4). The protective structure is moved using a winch.
Rice. 8.18 - Scheme of restoration of the area under the protection of a mobile structure: 1 - temporary fastening frames; 2 - backfill; 3 - protective visor; 4 - blockage
Working with a movable tent can be used when clearing large volumes of rubble that require the use of high-performance machines and equipment. The movable tent is a frame metal structure that moves on special trolleys with shock absorbers (Fig. 8.19). The tent has a head canopy (8), under the protection of which the rubble is dismantled using a rock-loading machine (1), and a lifting tail section (7) to protect workers when constructing the lining and laying the rockfall. The presence of telescopic poles at the tent allows it to be passed in a lowered state within the undamaged sections of the tunnel.
Rice. 8.19 - Diagram of a movable tent in working position: 1 - rock loading machine; 2 - trolley; 3 - temporary wooden support on metal arches; 4 - preserved lining; 5 - dumping tab; 6 - shaft mounting; 7 - lifting tail part of the tent; 8 - head visor
Restoration work with priority filling of the fallout or securing the “dome” are carried out if the shaft arch is in a state of unstable stabilization.
The “dome” is laid from the surface with crushed soil through specially excavated exploration shafts (Fig. 8.20) or drilled wells. If the tunnel is deep, digging special shafts to lower soil from the surface may not be practical. Wells can be drilled to a depth of 100 m or more.
Rice. 8.20 - Exploration mine
Securing the fallout and laying the “dome” from the tunnel is carried out at a low fallout height using a system of longitudinal and cross beams, racks and struts (Fig. 8.21). The support system is determined by the outline of the “dome”. To give it greater stability, the space between the posts and struts can be filled with soil. After securing the fallout and filling the “dome,” the tunnel is restored in the same way as was done in the case of open rubble.
Major restoration of tunnels
Major restoration of tunnels includes complete elimination consequences of destruction and ensuring normal conditions its operation.
Rice. 8.21 - Scheme for securing the fallout and laying the dome
When constructing linings, it should be taken into account that the soil in the rubble cannot fully resist the movements of the lining. In such cases, it is necessary to erect reinforced linings, where the installation of a reverse vault is of particular importance.
If there is free space for the construction of the lining, provided for by temporary restoration, the work is carried out simply. The lining is then constructed using metal movable prefabricated formwork or circles (Fig. 8.22).
Rice. 8.22 - Scheme of lining construction during major restoration of the tunnel: on the left - installation of formwork; on the right - concreting the lining; 1 - bearing circling temporary restoration; 2 - tightening of temporary restoration; 3 - metal supporting circles; 4 - formwork boards; 5 - backfill
In case of high-height fallouts, in which during temporary restoration the backfill was not completed completely and the temporary lining was erected along a limited profile, or in double-track tunnels temporarily restored for single-track traffic, the task of major restoration is much more complicated due to the large number of re-fastenings that must be performed during installation formwork (1) (Fig. 8.23).
Rice. 8.23 - Scheme of the capital restoration of a double-track tunnel, temporarily restored to a single-track one: on the left - formwork installation; on the right - concreting the lining; 1 - formwork; 2 - roof lining; 3 - temporary restoration arches
It is advisable to secure the roof of the dump with the help of capital structures above the lining, resting on the lining (Fig. 8.24).
Rice. 8.24 - Types of post-finishing capital structures for supporting the roof of the dump: a - ribbed ceiling on transverse walls; b - ribbed ceiling on racks; c - the same on the longitudinal walls; g - separate vault; 1 - reinforced concrete transverse wall; 2 - layer of shot concrete; 3 - passage; 4 - lining; 5 - racks; 6 - reinforced concrete longitudinal walls; 7 - concrete vault
The elimination of open and closed rubble during capital restoration is carried out in almost the same way as during temporary restoration, but during the work process a permanent lining is immediately erected.
A rubble is a chaotic accumulation of building materials and structures, fragments of technological equipment, sanitary equipment, furniture, household utensils, and stones.
The sudden collapse of buildings and structures can be caused by errors made during the design, deviations from the project during construction work, violations of the rules for installation of structures.
There is poor quality of construction work and the use of substandard building materials. A noticeable influence is exerted by underground karst cavities formed underground under the influence of water flows. Uncoordinated housing redevelopments can lead to catastrophic consequences for the building.
In some cases, the cause of the collapse may be the lack of reliable ventilation in the room where gas is used. Collapses are facilitated by explosions due to gas leaks, improper operation of household gas appliances, careless handling of fire, and storage of flammable liquids and explosives indoors.
In addition, the collapse of a structure is possible due to a man-made emergency, as well as during natural disasters, and, first of all, during an earthquake. Destruction can be a consequence not only of the force of the elements, but also of the poor quality of buildings or their technical wear and tear.
A terrorist attack and local military actions using various types of weapons cannot be ruled out either.
The degree of damage to buildings depends on the strength of the destructive factor, the duration of its impact, the seismic resistance of structures, the quality of construction, and the degree of wear (aging) of buildings.
According to the degree of destruction of buildings, rubble is divided into five types.
1. Light damage: thin cracks appear on the walls of buildings, plaster crumbles, small pieces break off, glass in windows is damaged.
2. Weak destruction: small cracks in the walls, quite large pieces of plaster break off, cracks appear in chimneys, some of them collapse, the roof is partially damaged, glass in the windows is completely broken.
3. Moderate destruction: large cracks in the walls of buildings, collapse of chimneys, partial fall of the roof.
4. Severe destruction: collapse of internal partitions and walls, breaks in walls, collapse of parts of buildings, destruction of connections between parts of buildings, collapse of the roof.
5. Complete destruction.
The rubble can be continuous or isolated (local).
The rubble is conventionally divided into reinforced concrete and brick.
Reinforced concrete rubble consists of fragments of reinforced concrete, concrete, metal and wooden structures, fragments of brickwork, and elements of technological equipment. They are characterized by the presence of a large number of large elements, often interconnected, voids and unstable elements.
Brick rubble consists of brick blocks, broken bricks, plaster, fragments of reinforced concrete, metal, and wooden structures. They are characterized by high density, the absence of large, as a rule, elements and voids.
The formation of blockages is accompanied by damage to electrical, thermal, gas, plumbing and other systems. This creates the risk of fires, explosions, flooding, and electric shock. The rubble of industrial buildings in which hazardous substances are produced or stored is especially dangerous.
The destruction of buildings and the formation of rubble is usually accompanied by death, blocking, and injury to people. Of all those injured in the rubble, approximately 40% receive minor injuries, 20% receive moderate injuries, and the same percentage receive severe and extremely severe injuries and mutilations.
Almost all the rubble ends up with people, some of them die immediately, some are injured. In the first day after an emergency, in the absence of first aid, approximately 40% of the victims die in the rubble. After 3-4 days after the formation of the blockage, the living people in it begin to die from thirst, cold, and injuries. After 7-10 days, there are practically no living people left in the rubble.
More on the topic Reasons for the formation of rubble:
- N 4. Techniques and rules of forensically similar investigative actions
- Law and morality are very close concepts Interview with the Chairman of the Association of Lawyers of Russia Veniamin Fedorovich Yakovlev
