The use of museum technologies in the educational and educational process. Using additional materials, learn about architectural monuments in Samarkand built under Timur Questions at the end of the paragraph
The foundation of a construction site is a mass of soil that lies under the foundation and steadily bears the entire load of the structure. The soils that serve as the foundation are divided into two types: natural, or natural and artificial.
thirdly, the soils must be free of heaving qualities; when they freeze, all such soils expand, and when they thaw, they shrink, which leads to disruption of the correct shrinkage of the structure and the formation of deformation cracks and gaps;
fourthly, the soil must have the ability to withstand all kinds of influences groundwater, liquids.
They have the following construction classification:
- rocky- virtually non-compressible, completely non-heaving, very waterproof ( best base). For example, Manhattan in New York.
- coarse-clastic, that is, pieces of rock type (about 50 percent with a volume of over two millimeters): gravel and crushed stone (a fairly good base);
- sands- and the larger the particles, the greater their potential for construction. Gravelly sand (large particles) becomes significantly compacted under loads; they do not exhibit heaving (quite good foundation). And small, almost dust-like particles begin to swell when exposed to moisture;
- clayey they take on significant loads when dry, but during the process of moistening their load-bearing capacity is significantly reduced and they become heaving;
- loess-like, that is, macroporous, usually have good strength, but during the moistening process they often give significant drawdowns; they can be used provided they are strengthened;
- bulk- are formed when filling pits, garbage dumps, and canals. They have disproportionate compressibility (require hardening);
- alluvial- are formed as a result of the cleansing of a dried-up river or lake. A good foundation made of soil;
- quicksand- are formed by small particles of sand containing silty mixtures. They are not suitable for natural substrates.
Strengthening methods:
Firstly, seal. Conventional pneumatic tamping or tamping with special plates, in some cases crushed stone is added. On large areas rollers are used;
Secondly, pillow device. In cases where it is difficult to strengthen the soil, the layer of unreliable soil is removed and replaced with a more stable one (for example, sand or gravel). The thickness of such a pillow is usually 10 centimeters or more;
Thirdly, silicization- used for fine dusty sand. In such cases, mixtures should be injected into the soil liquid glass with various chemical additives. After the soil hardens, it will acquire good bearing capacity;
fourthly, cementation, that is, the supply under the base cement mixture in liquid form or a liquid mixture of cement and sand;
fifthly, burning, that is thermal method, burning of various flammable materials in the depths of wells. Used for loess-like soil types. Thus, the soil foundation will be reliable if all these requirements and conditions are met during construction.
The density of the load-bearing soil underneath is critical to their safe and long-lasting performance. In our country, cases when buildings, structures and roads are erected on dense continental soils that do not require additional strengthening are relatively rare; most often it is necessary to carry out a number of measures to strengthen the soil, and most of them have a volume and final cost comparable to all subsequent construction.
There are only three ways to strengthen soil, both natural and artificially filled. This:
- Complete replacement of natural soil with low bearing capacity.
- Physical compaction natural soils.
- Strengthening with additional materials
Complete replacement of natural soil with low bearing capacity can be accomplished in two ways.
First: excavation of soil (usually fine-grained, pulverized sands, water-saturated gley soils on the site of former swamps) to the continental base (usually gravel), followed by filling the pit with gravel, crushed stone or pouring solid concrete slab. Gravel and crushed stone are compacted using vibratory rammers or heavy equipment, for example, road rollers weighing 10-15 tons.
Second: frequent driving of piles into upper layer fragile soil to the continental base. Currently, they are used exclusively, although history knows other examples, for example, oak piles were used in the construction of St. Petersburg.
Strengthening soils with the help of additional materials has become possible in last years when geotextiles, better known as non-woven, appeared synthetic material. It combines several beneficial properties and forms a strong, non-rotting, water-permeable base on the soil surface. With its help you can strengthen the slopes of embankments or canals, make a foundation for pedestrian paths and even highways. It is used both independently and as a finishing coating for gravel or crushed stone backfill.
Physical compaction of bulk and natural soils is carried out in any case to form a denser “cushion”. Only materials with a medium discrete structure are suitable for such a process - gravel, crushed stone (sand with natural stones), in rare cases it is used. Depending on the volume of work and the size of the material fractions, both light tools (vibrating rammers) and heavy equipment are used.
Samarkand – contemporary Ancient Rome: The age of its cultural lower strata dates back to the 1st millennium BC.
At the turn of the 14th – 15th centuries, a new flourishing of Samarkand began. This happened during the reign of the great conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), who decided to make Samarkand the capital of his empire. Timur wanted to make his capital unattainably beautiful and grandiose, superior to all other cities in the world. Therefore, the villages around Samarkand received new names and were henceforth called: Baghdad, Damascus, Cairo - the greatest cities of the world should have seemed like villages in comparison with the new capital of Timur. There were 13 gardens rustling around Samarkand, the largest of which was so extensive that once (as ancient chronicles say) the architect’s horse got lost there and they searched for it for a whole month.
The architectural ensemble of Samarkand, stretching from the Iron Gate to the east in the form of a street, was lined with ceremonial tombs and religious buildings on the sides. On the outskirts of Samarkand, on the slope of Afrasiab Hill, are the Shahi-Zinda mausoleums. No one planned or designed this magical street, the ensemble arose on its own, and it took hundreds of years to build it - one mausoleum after another. “Shahi-Zinda” means “living king,” whose cult existed long before the arrival of Islam here.
Timur had many wives, but only one beloved - the beautiful Bibi-khanum. The great ruler was on a long journey when she gathered the best architects of Samarkand, who, at the hour indicated by the stars, began building the mosque.
The mosque was built by a young architect who, captivated by the beauty of Bibi Khanum, became a victim of crazy and unrequited love. The slender walls of the mosque already shine with beautiful glaze, its dome already competes with the vault of heaven, all that remains is to close the arch of the portal. But the architect in love hesitates, because the completion of the work means separation from Bibi Khan.
Timur himself is buried in the Gur-Emir mausoleum, which is located near small pond on Registan Square. At first, Gur-Emir was intended for the burial of Muhamed Sultan, Timur’s beloved grandson, but now Timur himself, his sons and another grandson, the great medieval scientist Ulugbek, are buried here, under whom the mausoleum turned into the family tomb of the Timurids. The blue ribbed dome of the mausoleum rises to a height of 40 meters, wooden doors with ivory inlay lead to the main hall... The rays of the sun, breaking through the marble gratings, fall in stripes on eight tombstones, the graves themselves are located below - in the dungeon.
The central square of old Samarkand is Registan; streets approach it from all sides, radially crossing the territory of the Old City. In ancient times, a powerful canal flowed through the area, leaving a mass of sandy deposits. Sand deposits probably gave the name to this place, since “Registan” literally means “place of sand”, “sandy field”.
Until the 15th century, Registan was a large trade and craft square, but then its importance as a market square receded into the background. Under Khan Ulugbek, who was the ruler of Samarkand from 1409 to 1447, Registan became a ceremonial and official square: ceremonial reviews of troops began to take place here, khan’s decrees were proclaimed, etc.
During the time of Ulugbek, Samarkand was the center scientific life Central Asia, famous mathematicians, astronomers, historians came here... In the madrasah, for which Ulugbek personally selected teachers, and his observatory, scientists touched on the secrets of science. Merchants and artisans, pilgrims and poets, wanderers and diplomats - everyone flocked here, all roads led to the “precious pearl of the world” - the sparkling city of Samarkand.
1. Market Square.
How was the center of a medieval city different from a modern city?
The center of the medieval city, like the modern one, was the square. Only in the case of a medieval city, the whole life of the city took place on the square: auctions were held there, people exchanged news, criminals were punished, theatrical performances and performances took place on the square.
Unlike the modern city, the medieval city did not have running water or sewerage.
2. Town Hall.
1. What objects and documents were kept in the town hall? What significance did they have for the city?
The city banner, keys to the city gates, and the city seal were kept in the town hall. There, in strong chests behind many locks, the treasury and archives were kept. Archival documents were protected especially carefully, as they contained charters in which the rights, liberties and privileges of the city were recorded.
2. Which of the three listed methods of forming a city government seems more democratic to you? Which groups of the urban population were in any case not allowed to participate in city government?
The most democratic way to form a city council was to elect its members at a narrow meeting of “respected” citizens.
In any case, the poor and even many wealthy artisans were not allowed to participate in city government.
3. City Cathedral.
Why did the townspeople spend so much money, effort and time on the construction of cathedrals?
The townspeople spent so much money, effort and time on the construction of cathedrals in order to show the greatness, beauty and wealth of their city, in order to be proud of it. In addition, cathedrals were built in honor of saints, who were supposed to help and protect the city.
4. Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals.
1. Why do you think Romanesque churches resembled fortresses? Why are they called Romanesque? How do they resemble the architectural monuments of Ancient Rome?
Because the period when the cathedrals were built - the 9th - 12th centuries - was a period of internecine wars and constant attacks by neighboring tribes (Normans, Hungarians, etc.), so they had thick walls so that in case of attack the city residents could take cover behind them.
These cathedrals are called Romanesque because the architects who built them used the techniques of ancient Roman builders. These cathedrals were reminiscent of the architecture of Ancient Rome using columns, arches and vaults.
2. What mood did the architecture of the Gothic cathedral create among believers?
The architecture of the Gothic cathedral created the impression of lightness and weightlessness, as if the cathedral was stretching upward.
Questions at the end of the paragraph.
1. Imagine that you are a traveler arriving in a medieval city. Describe what you saw in the city. What seemed unusual to you?
The appearance of medieval cities was different from modern ones. The city was surrounded high walls with towers and deep ditches filled with water to protect against attacks, the city gates were locked at night. The walls surrounding the city limited its territory; As the population influxed from the villages and the number of inhabitants increased, it could not accommodate everyone living, and it had to be expanded by constructing new walls. This is how suburbs arose, in which mainly artisans settled.
Due to the limited urban area, the streets were very narrow. The houses were built on several floors, each top floor hung over the lower one, so that it was always twilight on the street. The architecture of the houses was simple and monotonous, the main building materials Wood, stone and straw served. The exceptions were the houses of feudal lords and wealthy merchants. Two buildings stood out sharply in the city square - the cathedral and the town hall. It was the center of the city and at the same time a market square. The streets were inhabited by artisans of one specialty. The windows of each workshop usually faced the street: during the day the shutters were opened, the upper one turned into a canopy, and the lower one became a counter. In addition, through open window you could see how the products were made. Street lighting for a long time didn't exist. There were no sidewalks either, the streets were unpaved, so in the hot summer it was very dusty, and in the spring and autumn it was dirty. Garbage was thrown directly into the streets. It was difficult to walk and drive along the streets of the medieval city; the puddles were so deep that it was impossible even to ride a horse through them. Crowded population, unsanitary conditions, and lack of hospitals turned the city into a hotbed of all diseases and epidemics, from which sometimes 1/2 to 1/3 of the city population died, especially during the plague, which was called the Black Death. Cities with their wooden buildings and thatched roofs were often subject to devastating fires, so there was a rule to turn off the lights in houses at nightfall.
2. Using additional materials, prepare a report about one of the famous medieval cathedrals.
Chartres Cathedral is a Catholic cathedral located in the city of Chartres, prefecture of the department of Eure et Loire. It is located 90 km southwest of Paris and is one of the masterpieces of Gothic architecture. In 1979, the cathedral was included in the list of objects World Heritage UNESCO.
Churches have long stood on the site of the modern Chartres Cathedral. Since 876, the Holy Shroud of the Virgin Mary has been kept in Chartres. Instead of the first cathedral, which burned down in 1020, a Romanesque cathedral with a huge crypt was erected. It survived the fire of 1134, which destroyed almost the entire city, but was badly damaged during the fire of June 10, 1194. From this fire, started by a lightning strike, only the towers with the western facade and the crypt survived. The miraculous salvation from the fire of the sacred shroud was considered a sign from above and served as the reason for the construction of a new, even more grandiose building.
The construction of the new cathedral began in the same 1194 with donations flocking to Chartres from all over France. City residents voluntarily delivered stone from surrounding quarries. The design of the previous building was taken as a basis, into which the surviving parts of the old building were inscribed. The main work, which included the construction of the main nave, was completed in 1220, the consecration of the cathedral took place on October 24, 1260 in the presence of King Louis IX and members of the royal family.
Chartres Cathedral has survived from the end of the 13th century to the present day practically untouched. It escaped destruction and robbery, and was not restored or rebuilt.
The three-nave building has a Latin cross plan with a short three-nave transept. The eastern part of the temple has several semicircular radial chapels. At the time of construction, the vaults of Chartres Cathedral were the highest in France, which was achieved through the use of flying buttresses resting on buttresses. Additional flying buttresses supporting the apse appeared in the 14th century. Chartres Cathedral was the first to use this architectural element, which gave it completely unprecedented external outlines and made it possible to increase its size window openings and the height of the nave (36 meters).
Feature appearance The cathedral are its two very different towers. The 105-meter spire of the south tower, built in 1140, is made in the shape of a simple Romanesque pyramid. The north tower, 113 meters high, has a base left over from a Romanesque cathedral, and the tower's spire dates back to the early 16th century and is made in the Flamboyant Gothic style.
Chartres Cathedral has nine portals, three of which remain from the old Romanesque cathedral. The north portal dates from 1230 and contains sculptures of Old Testament characters. The south portal, created between 1224 and 1250, uses themes from the New Testament with a central composition dedicated to Last Judgment. The West Portal of Christ and the Virgin Mary, better known as the Royal Portal, dates from 1150 and is famous for its depiction of Christ in Glory, created in the 12th century.
The entrances to the north and south transepts are decorated with sculptures from the 13th century. In total, the cathedral's decoration includes about 10,000 sculptures made of stone and glass.
On the south side of the cathedral there is an astronomical clock from the 16th century. Before the clock mechanism broke down in 1793, they showed not only the time, but also the day of the week, the month, the time of sunrise and sunset, the phases of the moon and the current sign of the Zodiac.
The interior of the cathedral is no less remarkable. The spacious nave, unrivaled in all of France, opens to a magnificent apse located at the eastern end of the cathedral. Between the arcades and the upper rows of windows of the central nave there is a triforium; the massive columns of the cathedral are surrounded by four powerful pilasters. The cathedral is famous for its stained glass windows, the total area of which is about 2000 m2. The Chartres collection of medieval stained glass is absolutely unique: more than 150 windows, the oldest of which were created in the 12th century. Apart from the large stained glass roses on the west façade and the south and north transepts, the most famous are the stained glass window of 1150, Our Lady of beautiful glass" and the composition "The Tree of Jesus".
A distinctive feature of the stained glass windows of Chartres Cathedral is the extreme saturation and purity of colors, the secret of which has been lost. The images are characterized by an extraordinary breadth of themes: scenes from the Old and New Testaments, scenes from the lives of prophets, kings, knights, artisans and even peasants.
The floor of the cathedral is decorated with an ancient labyrinth from 1205. It symbolizes the believer's path to God and is still used by pilgrims for meditation. There is only one way through this cathedral labyrinth. The size of the labyrinth practically coincides with the size of the window rose of the western facade (but does not repeat it exactly, as many mistakenly believe), and the distance from the western entrance to the labyrinth is exactly equal to the height of the window. The labyrinth has eleven concentric circles, the total length of the path through the labyrinth is approximately 260 meters. At its center is a flower with six petals, the outline of which resembles the roses of a cathedral.
According to the mockumentary Far Blue, drawings on the floor of Chartres Cathedral helped mathematicians discover "gravity tunnels."
Chartres Cathedral has well-preserved medieval stained glass windows, including the rose window. The total glazing area in the cathedral is 2044 sq.m. Stained glass from this period is dominated by deep blues and reds, and light shades are rare.
Questions for additional materials.
What was the significance of money changers in medieval society?
Thanks to the activity of money changers, trade developed, as this made it possible to buy/sell goods from another state, which contributed to the development of the circulation of goods.
1. What do you think? architectural style was the tower erected?
I think that in gothic style, he is characterized by an upward desire.
2. How can we explain that the craftsmen made such serious mistakes during construction and, moreover, did not pay attention to the warnings?
It is possible that the masters lost the knowledge of architecture and architecture that was known during the Roman Empire.
