Rank methods in sociological research. Types and techniques of surveys. Rules for writing questions
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Introduction to sociological research 2.Methodology of sociological research: 2.1. Sociological research program 2.2.Goals and objectives of sociological research 2.3.Object and subject of sociological research 2.4. System analysis of the research object 2.5. Proposing and testing hypotheses 2.6.Sampling methods 2.7 Data interpretation 3. Methods of sociological research: 3.1.Analysis of existing data. Content analysis 3.2.Observation 3.3.Mass survey. Questionnaire and interview 3.4.Experiment 4.An example of a sociological study Conclusion List of used literature |
Introduction
In our time, humanity has turned into a fairly highly developed community with a developed structure of power and various social institutions. But, as before, he faces various difficult and important problems. This could be, for example, an assessment of public opinion on a particular problem, etc. The question arises: how and in what way can they be resolved? But for rational decision tasks, you need to have an idea of the problem and its cause. Right here on foreground and advocates a sociological study
Sociological research, like any other research in any discipline or science, plays a very great importance. It allows the researcher to move forward in his research, confirming or refuting his conjectures and guesses, to collect and evaluate information about the phenomenon being studied.
Sociological research serves as a link between theoretical knowledge and reality. It helps to establish new patterns of development of society as a whole or any of its structural elements in particular.
With its help, you can solve a very wide range of issues and problems, analyzing the data obtained and giving specific recommendations to resolve the problem.
Sociological research is one of the ways to develop and accumulate sociological knowledge, which consists in the conscious concentration of the efforts of an individual researcher on limited, more or less predetermined tasks.
At the moment, as an example of the use of sociological research, we can cite a public opinion poll on the distribution of citizens’ preferences for candidates for the city council. In principle, the voting process itself is a large state sociological study.
Thus, the role of sociological research in the process of studying society can hardly be overestimated, which is why it will be discussed in this essay.
1. The concept of sociological research.
Sociological research- a system of logical consistent methodological, organizational and technological procedures interconnected by a single goal: to obtain reliable objective data about the phenomenon being studied.
Sociological research includes the following stages:
1. Preparatory: At this stage, the research program is developed.
2. Basic: includes conducting the research itself.
3. Final: data processing, analysis, and drawing conclusions are underway.
Types of research:
1. Intelligence research: a small, simple study with a small number of respondents and a condensed instrument.
2. Descriptive research: A deeper type of research with a larger community of people. Machine processing is used.
3. Analytical research: the most complex and in-depth study. It is not only descriptive, it covers a large number of respondents. Usually considers the dynamics of a phenomenon.
2. Methodology of sociological research.
2.1. Sociological research program.
The place and role of the program in sociological research. Sociological research begins with the development of its program. The results of the study largely depend on the scientific validity of this document. The program represents a theoretical and methodological basis for research procedures carried out by a sociologist (collection, processing and analysis of information) and includes:
Definition of the problem, object and subject of research;
Preliminary system analysis of the research object;
Characteristics of the purpose and objectives of the study;
Interpretation and operationalization of basic concepts;
Formulation of working hypotheses;
Defining a strategic research plan;
Drawing up a sampling plan;
Description of data collection methods;
Description of the data analysis scheme.
Sometimes the program has theoretical (methodological) and methodological (procedural) sections. The first includes program components that begin with the formulation of the problem and end with the preparation of a sampling plan, the second includes a description of methods for collecting, processing and analyzing data.
The program must answer two main questions:
Firstly, how to move from the initial theoretical principles of sociology to research, how to “translate” them into research tools, methods of collecting, processing and analyzing material;
Secondly, how to rise again from the obtained facts, from the accumulated empirical material to theoretical generalizations, so that the research not only gives practical recommendations, but also served as the basis for further development the theory itself.
2.2.Goals and objectives of sociological research
The goal is the general direction of sociological research, determining its nature and orientation (theoretical or applied). The research program should clearly answer the question: what problem and what result is this research aimed at solving?
If the goals are not clear enough to scientists and representatives of organizations that approached them with a social order, then disagreements may arise based on the results of the study. In this regard, it is important that sociological research is comprehensive, for which the program develops a system of main and non-core tasks.
Objectives are a set of specific targets aimed at analyzing and solving a problem.
The main objectives correspond to the purpose of the study. In theoretically oriented research, priority is given to scientific tasks, in practically oriented research, applied ones.
Minor tasks are set to prepare future research, solve methodological issues, and test side hypotheses not directly related to this problem.
With a theoretical or applied orientation of sociological research, it is advisable to solve non-main problems on the basis of the material obtained to find an answer to the central question, to analyze the same data, but from a different angle. It is possible that minor problems will not receive a complete solution, but they can help in formulating a scientific problem when preparing a new study for a new program.
2.3.Object and subject of sociological research
The object of sociological research is a community of people, their activities organized through social institutions, and the conditions in which this activity is carried out, or another phenomenon or process.
The object must be characterized by:
1. Clearly defined phenomena according to such parameters as:
a) industry affiliation;
b) professional affiliation;
c) age;
d) nationality.
2. Spatial limitations.
3. Functional orientation:
a) political orientation;
b) ethnic orientation;
c) production orientation.
4. Time limitation.
5. The possibilities of its quantitative measurement.
If the object of sociological research is independent of the research and opposes it, then the subject of study, on the contrary, is formed by the research itself.
The subject of sociological research is the central issue of the problem.
This is a construction created by thinking, existing only insofar as there is knowledge about the object, determined, on the one hand, by the object of study, on the other hand. another - conditions research: tasks, knowledge and means of sociology.
The subject of research is considered to be that side of the object that is directly subject to study, that is, the most significant side of the object from the point of view of sociological theory and social practice. One and the same social object may correspond to several different objects of research, each of which is determined in content by which aspect of the object it reflects, for what purpose, to solve what problem it was chosen.
For example, when studying migration processes, the object of study is the population of various territorial units: republic, region, district, settlement. The subject is migration - the movement of people from one place of residence to another. The purpose of the study is to optimize migration processes in a certain area. The task is to find the best ways of this optimization (for applied research) and to establish patterns of population migration (for theoretical research)
The same object can be described in different ways depending on the problem and purpose of sociological research. The choice of means of fixing them (methodology for collecting and analyzing data) depends, in turn, on what elements and connections will be identified in the object under study.
2.4. System analysis of the research object.
One of the tasks initial stage sociological research is to give a hypothetical detailed description of a social object as a system, that is, to describe it from the position system analysis. In this way, certain elements and connections characteristic of the object being studied are recorded.
A social object is considered from two sides: as a part of the whole and as a whole consisting of parts. In the first case, it is characterized by external connections, in the second - by internal ones.
The specificity of scientific research lies in the construction of a hypothetical model of an object as a set of its constituent elements and connections. This model becomes a “substitute” for the object under study.
The result of a preliminary systemic analysis of the social object being studied is the subject of research, which has the form of some hypothetical model, which can be presented in the form of a diagram describing the elements and connections of the object being studied.
A systemic analysis of an object allows you to clarify the subject of research, highlight basic concepts and give their interpretation, as well as put forward working hypotheses.
2.5. Proposing and testing hypotheses.
A hypothesis in sociological research is a scientifically based assumption about the structure of social objects, about the nature of the elements and connections that form these objects, about the mechanism of their functioning and development.
A scientific hypothesis can only be formulated as a result preliminary analysis the object being studied.
Hypothesis requirements. A scientifically substantiated hypothesis in sociology must meet a number of requirements.
1. It must correspond to the original principles of the theory of scientific knowledge. This requirement plays the role of a criterion for selecting scientific hypotheses and eliminating unscientific ones, and excludes from science untenable hypotheses built on the basis of false theories.
2. A hypothesis that explains social facts in a certain area, as a rule, should not contradict theories whose truth has already been proven for this area. But a new hypothesis can sometimes contradict old theories and at the same time be completely acceptable.
3. It is necessary that the hypothesis does not contradict known and verified facts. If among the known facts there is at least one with which the hypothesis does not agree, then it must be discarded or reformulated so as to cover the entire set of facts for which it is proposed to explain. But a contradiction with known facts should not always be regarded as a sign of the inconsistency of the hypothesis.
4. the hypothesis must be testable in the process of sociological research. It is checked using a specially developed technique at the disposal of the researcher.
5. The hypothesis must be subjected to logical analysis to establish its consistency. This is done not only through logical rules, but also through operational definitions. The latter allow one to avoid arbitrary interpretation of the empirical terms of the hypothesis.
In order to increase the confirmability of a hypothesis, one should strive to put forward a larger number of interrelated hypotheses and indicate for each hypothesis the possible larger number empirical indicators of the variables included in it.
The first are assumptions about the structural and functional connections of the object being studied. They may also relate to the classification characteristics of a social object.
The second are assumptions about cause-and-effect relationships in the object under study, requiring empirical experimental verification.
In the process of such testing, a distinction should be made between the main hypotheses and their consequences (inferential hypotheses).
2.6. Sampling methods.
Population- the totality of all possible social objects that are subject to study within the framework of a sociological research program.
Sample or sample population- part of the objects of the general population, selected using special techniques to obtain information about the entire population as a whole.
1. Quota sample population.
This method requires at least four characteristics by which respondents are identified.
Typically used for large populations.
2. Main Array Method.
It assumes a survey of 60-70% of the general population.
3. Cluster sampling method.
The respondent is not an individual, but a group.
This method will be representative if the composition of the groups is similar.
4. Serial sampling method.
With this method, the general population is divided into homogeneous parts, from which a unit of analysis is proportionally selected (elements of a sample or survey population: there can be both individuals and groups).
5. Mechanical sampling method.
The required number of respondents is selected from the general list of the general population at regular intervals.
6. Solid method.
Used with a small population.
2.7.Interpretation of data.
After the research results, observational and measurement data are obtained, a theoretical interpretation of the empirical data is carried out. The “language of observation” is, as it were, translated into the “language of theory” - an action opposite to that which was carried out before the study.
This interpretation is carried out in the process of theoretical generalization of empirical data and assessment of the truth of the hypotheses put forward.
3.Methods of sociological research.
3.1.Analysis of existing documents. Content analysis
A significant part of the information necessary for the researcher in his work is contained in documentary sources. In sociology, their study as a stage of sociological research is called analysis of existing data, or secondary data analysis.
A complete understanding of the content of documentary sources in many cases allows one to obtain information sufficient to solve the problem that has arisen or to deepen the analysis of the problem. Thus, when formulating the problem and hypotheses of the study, the sociologist turns to the analysis of such written documents as scientific publications, reports on previous research, various statistical and departmental publications.
In sociology, a document is a specially created human object for transmitting and storing information.
There are different classifications of documents:
1. From a point of view intended purpose distinguish:
a) target documents: chosen by the sociologist himself;
b) cash documents: available.
2. According to the degree of personification:
a) personal: statements, letters, testimonials, etc.;
b) impersonal: for example, statistical data.
3. Depending on the source status:
a) official;
b) unofficial.
4. According to the source of information:
a) primary: compiled on the basis of direct observation or survey;
b) secondary: processing, generalization, description made on the basis of primary sources.
It is the analysis of documents that provides initial information and allows the accurate and targeted use of other research methods.
Of particular interest to sociologists are the summary data of the results of specialized continuous and sample surveys conducted by central statistical organizations and departmental research organizations.
IN Lately Statistical reference books began to appear in Russia and abroad, which included indicators of satisfaction with various spheres of human activity, environmental conditions and other subjective indicators.
In sociology, there are two groups of methods for analyzing document information:
1. Traditional.
2. Formalized.
The first is understood as mental operations aimed at analyzing primary data in documents from the point of view of research of interest. It has the disadvantage of subjectivity.
The essence of the second is that the researcher translates quantitative indicators of text information.
Traditional Document Analysis Methods.
Documentary sources provide unique and diverse information about social phenomena and processes. It is important to find methods that would allow the required information to be retrieved with sufficient reliability. These methods include a whole variety of mental operations aimed at interpreting the content of documents in accordance with the purpose of the study.
Traditional analysis is an adaptation of the content of a document to a research problem, based on intuitive understanding, generalization of the content and logical justification of the conclusions drawn.
It is necessary to make an assessment of the quality of documents, which includes:
1. Clarification of the conditions, purposes and reasons for creating the document.
In other words, the reliability factors of a documentary source are clarified in relation to the purposes of the study. Establishing the completeness and reliability of the source regarding the objectives of the study are the main parameters of its assessment before the start of the study.
Quantitative analysis (content analysis).
The most significant limitation associated with the use of traditional methods of analyzing documents such as newspapers and similar sources is the possibility of subjective influences on the results of the analysis, that is, the influence of the researcher’s attitudes, his interests, and existing stereotypical ideas about the subject of analysis. This disadvantage is overcome by methods of formalized analysis, which are based on statistical accounting of various objective characteristics of the text. For example, the frequency of publications in a newspaper of materials on a certain topic, the number of lines allocated by the editors to individual topics, headings, authors, the frequency of mentions of problems, terms, names, geographical names, etc.
Content analysis is a method of studying messages created in various areas of social communication and recorded in the form of written text on paper or recordings on any other physical media.
The analysis is based on uniform standardized rules for searching, recording and calculating quantitative indicators of the studied characteristics of the text.
Its essence is to find and use for calculation such features of a document that would reflect certain essential aspects of its content.
It is advisable to use content analysis in the presence of large text arrays with a clear structure determined by the communicative intentions of the authors of the text.
3.2.Observation.
Observation in sociology is a method of collecting information by directly studying a social phenomenon in its natural conditions.
There are a number of features of this method:
1. Communication between the observer and the object of observation.
2. The observer is not devoid of a human trait - emotionality of perception.
3. Difficulty in repeated observation.
Depending on the degree of standardization of observation techniques, two main types of this method can be distinguished.
A standardized observation technique presupposes the presence of a previously detailed list of events and signs to be observed; determination of observation conditions and situations; instructions for observers; uniform codifiers for recording observed phenomena.
Non-standardized (unstructured) observation. In this case, the researcher determines only the general directions of observation, according to which the results are recorded in free form directly during the observation process or later from memory.
Forms and methods of recording the results of the observer - forms and observation diaries, photo, film, video and radio equipment.
Depending on the role of the observer in the situation under study, 4 types of observation are distinguished:
1. Full participation of the observer in the situation: involves the inclusion of the observer in the group being studied as a full member. The role of the observer is unknown to the group members.
2. Participant in the situation as an observer: characterized by the observer’s inclusion in the group, but it is understood that his role as a researcher is clear to all participants.
3. Observer as a participant: means that the observer is primarily a researcher and, interacting with participants in the social process, does not pretend to be an actual participant.
4. Completely observer: the researcher performs only the function of an observer, without interacting with the participants in the situation, remaining out of their field of vision.
Observation procedure. The process of studying a social phenomenon using the observation method can be roughly represented as the following sequence of steps:
Formulation of the problem, description of the object of observation, definition of tasks;
Determination of units of observation and indicators of the studied aspects of behavior;
Development of a language and system of concepts in terms of which the results of observation will be described; defining sampling procedures for situations where it is possible to select from many observations;
Preparation technical documents to record the observed phenomenon (cards, protocol forms, coding forms, etc.);
Recording the results of observations;
Data analysis and interpretation;
Preparation of a report and conclusions based on the results of the study.
Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method. The main advantage is that it makes it possible to capture the details of a given phenomenon, its versatility.
The flexibility of the method is another quality that is of no small importance when studying social phenomena.
And finally, cheapness is a common attribute inherent in this method.
Among the shortcomings, first of all, it should be noted the qualitative nature of the conclusions that can be obtained as a result of observation. The method can rarely be applied to the observation of large populations. However, the biggest drawback is associated with the possibility of introducing a certain amount of subjectivity into the essence of the method and less opportunities than in other cases for a broad generalization of research results.
3.3.Mass survey. Questionnaire and interview
The researcher turns to this method when, in order to solve a given problem, he needs to obtain information about the sphere of people’s consciousness: about their opinions, motives of behavior, assessments of the surrounding reality, life plans, goals, orientations, awareness, etc.
In all such cases, it is people, participants in the social processes being studied, who act as a unique source of information that cannot be replaced by any other. However, the survey method can also obtain information about people’s behavior and various factual information.
The essence of the survey method comes down to communication between the researcher, directly or indirectly through his representative, with a population of people (respondents) in the form of a question-and-answer dialogue. The peculiarity of this communication is that, on the one hand, it must meet the strict requirements of the scientific procedure, and on the other, it must proceed from the fact that the source of information is ordinary participants in the processes being studied, who are aware of these processes within the framework of everyday everyday experience.
Thus, the survey implements the cognitive interaction of two different levels social consciousness: scientific, the bearer of which is the researcher, and ordinary, practical, the bearer of which is the interviewee, the respondent.
Methodological principles for constructing a questionnaire. The content of the questions, their wording, sequence and relationship in the structure of the questionnaire must meet two requirements.
1. Questions must be necessary and sufficient to provide empirical testing of research hypotheses and to solve its cognitive problems. This requirement is met at the stage of empirical interpretation of concepts through the development of a set of indicators and a corresponding list of units of required information.
In other words, for each question in the questionnaire, its cognitive task, its required information, must be determined.
2. It is necessary to take into account the socio-psychological characteristics of the respondents who are the source of information. This means that the author of the questionnaire must take into account the respondents’ awareness of the subject of the survey, the specifics of their language, communication traditions, ideas about prestige and self-esteem, etc.
IN practical work When designing a questionnaire, both requirements are often suppressed and must be taken into account comprehensively and in conjunction.
When starting to develop a questionnaire, the sociologist solves a problem at a different level - how to formulate a question in order to obtain the required information?
Types of questions. Depending on the purposes for which questions are asked, they are divided into substantive and functional.
Functional issues are resolved various tasks to manage the course of the survey, its psychological atmosphere, and logical rigor. The main types of such questions are: filter questions, control questions, contact questions.
The need for filter questions arises when the required information can be obtained not from the entire population of respondents, but only from some of it.
The purpose of control questions is to find out the stability or consistency of the respondent’s answers that he gives on the same topic or problem.
Contact questions serve to establish contact with the respondent and create positive motivation for the survey. They may not be directly related to the topic of the survey, but allow the respondent to speak on the topic that is most relevant and close to him.
Depending on what is being asked, there are:
1. Questions about facts. Their goal is to obtain information about social phenomena or characteristics that can be unambiguously determined. (This could be age, gender, etc.).
2. Questions about knowledge. The purpose of these questions is to obtain information indicating that the respondent is informed. The answers help to more accurately identify the structure of attitudes and interests and indicate the degree of inclusion of the individual in the team.
3. Questions about opinion. The answers to these questions most often contain estimates. Opinions are less stable than knowledge. They are more strongly conditioned by the situation and often depend on personal experiences and moods. The formulation of opinions is determined by the way an individual is included in the process of social development, by his political activity.
4. Questions about motives. Study of motives social behavior places high demands on survey techniques and indicator construction. It is easier for respondents to talk about facts, behavior, situations than to judge the motives of behavior. This is due to the fact that assessing (or justifying) actions in the past is difficult.
According to the filling technique, they are distinguished:
1. Open questions. They give the respondent the opportunity to independently formulate an answer that reflects the uniqueness of individual consciousness, language, style, stock of information, and circle of associations.
2. Closed questions. It is assumed that there are ready-made answer options that the sociologist develops before the start of the survey, based on his initial ideas about the content of the question and on the data of the pilot study.
Questioning.
Questionnaire- a type of survey in which the respondent fills out the questionnaire independently.
Questionnaire- a questionnaire filled out independently by the respondent according to the rules.
Based on the number of respondents, there are:
1. Group survey.
2. Individual survey.
According to the venue, the following are distinguished:
1. Questionnaire at home.
2. Questioning at work.
3. Questioning of target audiences.
By method of distributing questionnaires:
1. Distribution questionnaire: distributed to respondents by the questionnaire itself.
2. Postal questionnaire: sent by mail.
3. Press questionnaire: published in the press.
The main advantage of group questioning is related to the organizational accessibility and efficiency of the survey. The questionnaires are filled out in the presence of the surveyor and returned to him immediately after completion. This survey form provides an almost 100% return rate and short terms data collection.
When using an individual survey using a handout questionnaire, the surveyor either hands the questionnaire to the respondent, agreeing on the return date at the next meeting, or, having explained the rules for filling out and the purpose of the survey, waits for the questionnaire to be filled out.
A postal survey is a fairly popular method of surveying large populations of people.
Its weaknesses are the low return rate without the use of special techniques (about 30%), the uncontrollable situation of filling out questionnaires and the difficulties associated with these features in justifying the representativeness of the sample of the target population.
The publication of questionnaires in newspapers or magazines is actively used in journalistic practice, however, the cognitive capabilities of this type of survey are limited due to the problem of returning completed questionnaires.
Interview. As a method of collecting information, interviews are largely devoid of the disadvantages listed above, but the price for this is a relatively high cost.
Interview- a conversation conducted according to a specific plan, which involves direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent, and the answers are recorded either by the interviewer or on some storage medium (for example, a voice recorder).
There are several types of interviews, depending on how standardized the conversation situation is.
Standardized interview with closed questions used to survey a large population of people (several hundreds or thousands) when the substantive structure of the problem is determined.
Standardized An interview with open-ended questions gives the respondent more independence in formulating answers and requires the interviewer to record them as detailed and accurately as possible.
Directed (focused) interview. The plan for such an interview provides only a list of questions that must be considered during the conversation. But the sequence and wording of questions may vary depending on the specific situation.
A free interview involves the preliminary development of approximate main directions of conversation with the respondent. The wording of questions and their sequence are formed during the interview and are determined by the individual characteristics of the interviewee.
3.4.Experiment.
Sociological experiment- a method of obtaining information about quantitative and qualitative changes in the activity and behavior of a social object as a result of the influence of certain manageable and controllable factors on it.
In sociology, an economic experiment means the direct influence of specific economic conditions on people’s consciousness.
Classical experimental model. It can be boiled down to studying the impact of an independent variable (for example, the performance of a presidential candidate) on a dependent variable (a person’s vote in an election). The purpose of the experiment is to test the hypothesis about the presence or absence of influence of the independent variable on the dependent one.
Of fundamental importance in such a model is the question of selecting experimental and control groups. The main task of the researcher is to achieve maximum similarity (since complete identity cannot be achieved) of these two groups before the experiment. The term “similarity” is understood here in a statistical sense, i.e., the units of the general population from which the groups are selected must have equal chances of falling into both the first group and the second. This selection process is often called randomization. Randomization aims to eliminate systematic biases and errors that may arise during experimental exposure to non-equivalent groups.
Internal and external validity. The problem of internal validity means that there is a possibility that the conclusions a researcher draws from experimental results may not reflect what happened during the experiment itself.
The sources of this problem may be:
The influence of past events on the results of the experiment;
Changes in the experiment participants themselves during the experiment;
The impact of the testing and retesting process on people's behavior;
The influence of the instrument used during the experiment, including the experimenter himself;
Incomparability of experimental and control groups.
External validity refers to the ability to generalize, extend the conclusions of an experiment to real objects. Even if the results are internally valid, is it possible to transfer the conclusions obtained from experimental groups to real social objects and processes?
There are many examples when the results of experiments turn out to be unacceptable at all or not fully acceptable for the phenomenon being studied.
Laboratory experiment involves the researcher creating an artificial environment (for example, a laboratory) in which to conduct it, which allows him to more closely control the environment in which the groups being studied are placed. The artificiality of the environment lies in the fact that the object of observation is transferred from its usual environment to an environment that helps to achieve a high degree of accuracy in observing its behavior. In sociology, one of the most difficult problems associated with a laboratory experiment concerns the external validity of the experimental results.
Field experiment. It is characterized by the most natural situation possible - this could be a classroom, a work environment.
Natural experiment. It is understood as an experiment in which the researcher does not select and prepare an independent variable in advance and does not influence the experimental group with it. The researcher assigns himself the role of observer and recorder of processes independently occurring in the area of life being studied.
The results of the social experiment are reflected in the report, which contains the following three sections:
4. An example of a sociological study.
In order to give an example of a sociological study, a hypothetical problem was taken: what determines the productivity of workers, i.e., what motivates them to work with interest.
The object of the study was a group of students (since studying is also a kind of work, and after it the majority will obviously go to work) of 20 people.
The subject of study was the learning process (labor productivity) of these people.
The goal of this study was to find ways to increase motivation and increase productivity (improving educational results).
The task was to find ways to achieve a specific goal, as well as to identify the dependence of motivation and labor productivity on various factors.
Questioning was chosen as a method of sociological research. Respondents were given questionnaires that looked like this:
QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Good chances of promotion
2. Good earnings
3. Pay related to performance
4. Recognition and appreciation for a job well done
5. Work that allows you to realize your abilities
6. Complex and difficult work
7. Work that allows you to think and act independently
8. High degree of responsibility
9. Interesting job
10. Work that requires creativity
11. Work without much strain and stress
12. Convenient work location
13. Sufficient information about what is generally happening at the company
14. Significant additional benefits
15. Fair distribution of work volumes
What factors would you like to add to the proposed list?
Once completed, the questionnaires were collected to process the results, which are presented in the form of an average score for each factor in the following table (Table 1), with the factors arranged in descending order of average score.
Table 1
Average scores of factors contributing to increased productivity
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1. Work without much strain and stress 2. Good earnings 3. Interesting work 4. Good chances of promotion 5. Recognition and appreciation for a job well done 6. Convenient work location 7. Sufficient information about what is generally happening at the company 8. Significant additional benefits 9. Pay related to performance 10. Fair distribution of work volumes 11. Work that requires creativity 12. Work that allows you to realize your abilities 13. High degree of responsibility 14. Work that allows you to think and act independently 15. Complex and difficult work |
As a result of the survey, it is clear that the strongest motivator for highly productive work is work without great strain and stress, which is explained by the fact that all respondents have actually not yet worked and do not want to start their working career with work replete with stress and tension (a striking example is their attitude towards learning - all students want a test or exam automatically with a minimum of effort).
Second place in our hit parade was taken by a factor called good earnings, which is not surprising - what kind of person (especially a student) would refuse extra money.
In third place is a factor such as interesting work. Of course, who would like boring and monotonous work and what is there to talk about increasing labor productivity?
Due to the obvious absence of workaholics in the group, the factor “complicated and difficult work” took only last place.
Among the added factors, we can highlight such as the possibility of parallel or extra work in another organization, provision of official transport and provision of a personal secretary (secretary).
This work does not pretend to be a full-fledged sociological study, as it has a number of significant shortcomings. Firstly, the survey was not carried out in a specific situation where a problem related to labor productivity arose (among students, such a problem does not arise at all from their point of view), i.e. there was no specific problem situation, and therefore it was It was decided not to draw specific conclusions for applying them in practice.
Ideally, such a study would be advisable to conduct at an enterprise where there is a problem with labor productivity.
Conclusion
So, the basic principles in preparing and conducting sociological research have been described above. Its main goals and objectives are outlined, the concepts of the object and subject of sociological research are given, and methods for sampling respondents from the general population are given.
Depending on the tasks and conditions of conducting sociological research, various methods were identified, where their positive and negative aspects, difficulties in implementing recommendations for conducting, etc. were also mentioned.
Sociological research is considered as an important and integral part of sociology, as one of the main ways of developing sociological knowledge, knowledge about society, its structural units and the processes occurring in it.
Sociological research also plays an important role in the study and resolution of problems arising in social, industrial and other spheres of human activity.
I think that the material presented above, despite its small volume, made it possible to learn what sociological research is, why it is necessary, and to become familiar with its fundamentals.
Bibliography
1. Baskov A., Benker G. Modern sociological theory. - M. - 1996
The essence of sociological research. Social life constantly poses many questions to a person, which can only be answered with the help of scientific research, in particular sociological research. However, not every study of a social object is actually a sociological study. Sociological research is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational procedures, subordinated to a single goal: to obtain accurate and objective data about the social object, phenomenon and process being studied. Sociological research should be based on the use of specific sociological scientific methods, techniques and procedures.
For a clear and clear understanding of the essence of the sociological research process, it is necessary to understand the system and essence of the concepts that are most often used in the process of sociological research.
Methodology – the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge and transformation of reality. It is divided into general, applied by any science, and private, reflecting the specifics of knowledge of a particular science.
Sociological research method is a way of constructing and justifying a knowledge system. In sociology, the method is also general scientific theoretical methods, (abstraction, comparative, typological, systemic, etc.), and specific empirical methods (mathematical and statistical, methods of collecting sociological information: survey, observation, document analysis, etc.).
Any sociological study involves several stages :
Preparation of the study. This stage consists of thinking about the goal, drawing up a program and plan, determining the means and timing of the research, as well as choosing methods for analyzing and processing sociological information.
Collection of primary sociological information. Collection of non-generalized information in various forms (records from researchers, responses from respondents, extracts from documents, etc.).
Preparation of collected information for processing and actual processing of the received information.
Analysis of processed information, preparation of a scientific report based on the results of the study, as well as formulation of conclusions, development of recommendations and proposals for the customer.
Kinds sociological research.
According to the way of knowing, according to the nature of the sociological knowledge obtained, they distinguish:
theoretical research . A feature of theoretical research is that the researcher works not with the object (phenomenon) itself, but with concepts that reflect this object (phenomenon);
empirical studies . The main content of such research is the collection and analysis of factual, real data about the object (phenomenon).
By using the final results studies are distinguished:
Most empirical studies have applied nature , i.e. The results obtained find practical application in various spheres of public life.
Sociologists also conduct basic research , which
fundamental – aimed at the development of science. These studies are initiated by scientists, departments, universities and conducted by academic institutions to test theoretical hypotheses and concepts.
applied – aimed at solving practical problems. Most often, the customers of empirical research are commercial structures, political parties, government agencies, and local governments.
Depending on the repeatability of the studies, there are:
one-time – allow you to get an idea of the state, position, statics of any social object, phenomenon or process at a given moment;
repeated – are used to identify dynamics and changes in their development.
By the nature of the goals and objectives set, as well as according to the width and depth of the analysis of a social phenomenon or process, sociological research is divided into:
intelligence (aerobatic, sounding). With the help of such research it is possible to solve very limited problems. In essence, this is a “run-in” of the tools. Toolkit in sociology they refer to documents with the help of which primary information is collected. These include a questionnaire, an interview form, a questionnaire, and a card for recording observation results.
descriptive. Descriptive research is carried out according to a complete, sufficiently developed program and on the basis of proven tools. Descriptive research is usually used when the subject is a relatively large community of people with different characteristics. This could be the population of a city, district, region where people of different age categories live and work, level of education, marital status, financial security, etc.
analytical. Such studies aim at the most in-depth study of a phenomenon, when it is necessary not only to describe the structure and find out what determines its main quantitative and qualitative parameters. According to the methods used for collecting sociological information, the analytical research is comprehensive. In it, complementing each other, they can be used various shapes survey, document analysis, observation.
Sociological research program. Any sociological research begins with the development of its program. The sociological research program can be viewed in two aspects. On the one hand, it represents the main document of scientific research, by which one can judge the degree of scientific validity of a particular sociological study. On the other hand, the program is a specific methodological model of research, which sets out methodological principles, the purpose and objectives of the study, as well as ways to achieve them.
Sociological Research Program is a scientific document that reflects a logically substantiated scheme of transition from a theoretical understanding of the problem to the tools of specific empirical research. The sociological research program is the main document of scientific research, containing the basic methodological and methodological research procedures.
1. Formulation of the problem situation . The reason for conducting sociological research is the actual contradiction that has arisen in the development of the social system, between its subsystems or individual elements of these subsystems; this kind of contradiction constitutes essence of the problem.
2. Definition of the object and subject of research. Formulating a problem inevitably entails defining the object of research. An object - this is a phenomenon or process at which sociological research is aimed (the area of social reality, the activities of people, the people themselves). The object must be a carrier of contradiction. The object must be characterized by:
clear designations of the phenomenon, according to such parameters as professional affiliation (industry); spatial limitation (region, city, village); functional orientation (production, political, household);
certain time limitations;
the possibility of its quantitative measurement.
Item – that side of the object that is directly subject to study. Usually the subject contains the central question of the problem, associated with the assumption of the possibility of detecting a pattern or central tendency of the contradiction being studied.
After substantiating the problems, defining the object and subject, the purpose and objectives of the research can be formulated, the basic concepts are defined and interpreted.
Target research – the general focus of the research, the action plan, which determine the nature and systemic ordering of various acts and operations.
Research objective – This is a set of specific goals aimed at analyzing and solving a problem, i.e. what needs to be done specifically to achieve the purpose of the study.
Interpretation of basic concepts – this is a procedure for searching for empirical values of the main theoretical provisions of the study, a process of transition to simpler and fixed components.
The sociologist constructs a preliminary explanation of the problem, i.e. formulates hypotheses. Sociological research hypothesis ovations – a scientific assumption about the structure of social objects, about the nature and essence of the connection between social phenomena.
Function of a hypothesis: obtaining new scientific statements that improve or generalize existing knowledge.
After solving problems related to the implementation of the methodological section of the program, move on to the methodological section. The creation of a methodological section of the program contributes to the concretization of the entire sociological research, as well as the transition from methodology to the practical solution of assigned problems. The structure of the methodological section of the program includes the following components: defining the population being studied or constructing a sample, justifying the methods and techniques for collecting sociological information, describing the methods of analysis and the logical scheme of data processing, drawing up a work plan for the study, developing a strategic plan for the study.
Sampling method in sociology. Currently, not a single mass sociological survey can do without the use of sampling. This is an extremely important stage in the development of the methodological section of the research program.
Sampling has not always played such a role in sociological research. Only starting from the 30s of the 20th century. The scale of the surveys began to expand to include national surveys, which entailed a significant increase in material costs for the surveys. The basic principle of surveys conducted in those days was simple: the more respondents are surveyed, the better and more accurate the result will be. However, starting from the first half of the 30s of the 20th century, the study of public opinion began to be carried out using strict methods of scientific analysis. At this time, probability theory and mathematical statistics arose and began to actively develop. Even then, researchers established that, based on the laws of probability theory, it is possible to get an idea of the whole from a relatively small sample population, and with a fairly high degree of accuracy.
In 1933, an unknown researcher at the time, J. Gallup, conducted a series of experimental sample surveys in the United States to study the readability of newspapers and magazines. In 1934, he tested his methods on a larger scale, during the elections to the US Congress, where he quite accurately predicted the victory of the Democrats. In 1935 he created the American Gallup Institute. In 1936, based on sample surveys he conducted, he predicted T. Roosevelt's victory in the presidential election. The sample size was 1500 people. Since 1936, the sampling method has also been actively used in market research.
The basic idea of a sample survey is that if there is a population of independent random variables, then it can be judged from a relatively small part. For example, a box contains 10 thousand balls, equally red and green. If you mix them and pull out 400 at random, it turns out that they are distributed approximately equally in color. If this operation is repeated many times, the result will be practically unchanged. Statistics allow you to determine the percentage of inaccuracy, which depends on the sample size.
The most important thing in the sampling method is that the structure of the entire population being studied is taken into account. Meanwhile, it is necessary to keep in mind that a sample survey is a survey with an error. In most studies, an error of 5% is acceptable. How larger size samples, the smaller the error.
Sampling method research allows us to draw a conclusion about the nature of the distribution of the studied characteristics population(a set of elements that are the object of sociological research.) based on consideration of only a certain part of it, called a sample population, or sample. Sample population – this is a reduced copy of the general population, or its micromodel, selected according to strictly specified rules and containing all its most important features and characteristics as a whole. The property of a sample population to recreate the characteristics of the general population is called representativeness.
Let's consider the main methods of selecting a population into a sample, which determine the typology, or species diversity of the sampling method.
1. Random (probability) sampling – it is a sample constructed in such a way that any person or object within the population has an equal chance of being selected for analysis. Thus, this is a more strict definition of randomness than the one we use in everyday life, but it is almost the same as choosing using a lottery.
Types of Probability Sampling:
simple random – constructed using a table of random numbers;
systematic - carried out at intervals in the list of objects;
serial - the units of random selection are certain nests, groups (families, groups, residential areas, etc.);
multi-stage - random, in several stages, where at each stage the selection unit changes;
2. Non-random ( purposeful) sample – This is a method of selection in which it is impossible to calculate in advance the probability of each element being included in the sample population. With this approach, it is impossible to calculate the representativeness of the sample, so sociologists prefer probability sampling. At the same time, situations often arise when non-random sampling is the only possible option.
Types of non-random sampling:
targeted – typical elements are selected according to established criteria;
quota – is constructed as a model that reproduces the structure of the general population in the form of quotas for the distribution of characteristics of the objects being studied. Most often, gender, age, education, employment are taken into account;
spontaneous - a “first comer” sample, where the criteria are not defined (an example is a regular mail survey of TV viewers, newspaper or magazine readers. In this case, it is almost impossible to indicate in advance the structure of the sample population, i.e. those respondents who fill out and send questionnaires by mail Therefore, the conclusions of such a study can only be extended to a certain population).
Each type sampling method differs in one or another level of accuracy, has its own specific features, which makes it possible to optimally solve specific problems of sociological research.
Methods and techniques for collecting sociological information. There are four main methods used to collect primary data:
Survey (questionnaire or interview);
Document analysis (qualitative and quantitative);
Observation (not included and included);
Experiment (scientific and practical).
Survey – a sociological method of obtaining information in which respondents (people being interviewed) are asked specially selected questions in written or oral form and asked to answer them.
Survey is the most common type of sociological research and at the same time the most widely used method of collecting primary information. With its help, from 70% to 90% of all sociological data are collected.
There are two types of sociological survey:
1. Questioning. When surveying, the respondent fills out the questionnaire himself, in the presence of the questionnaire or without him. The survey can be individual or group. The form of the survey can be either face-to-face or correspondence. The most common forms of the latter are mail survey and newspaper survey.
2. Interviewing. Involves direct communication between the interviewer and respondents. The interviewer asks the questions himself and records the answers. In terms of the form it can be carried out, it can be direct or indirect, for example, by telephone.
Depending on the source of information, there are:
1. Mass surveys. The source of information is representatives of large social groups (ethnic, religious, professional, etc.).
2. Specialized (expert) surveys. The main source of information is competent persons (experts) who have the professional and theoretical knowledge necessary for the researcher, life experience, which allows them to make authoritative conclusions.
The difference between a sociological survey and other surveys:
The first distinguishing feature is number of respondents (sociologists interview hundreds and thousands of people and get public opinion, while other surveys interview one or more people and get personal opinion).
The second distinguishing feature is reliability and objectivity. It is closely related to the first: by interviewing hundreds and thousands, the sociologist gets the opportunity to process the data mathematically. He averages out various opinions and as a result receives much more reliable information than, for example, a journalist.
T third distinctive feature– the purpose of the survey is to expand scientific knowledge, enrich science, clarify typical empirical situations (in sociology), and not reveal individual characteristics and deviations (in journalism, medicine, investigation). Scientific facts obtained by sociologists are universal and of a universal nature.
Document analysis. In sociology, a document is a specially created human object designed to transmit or store information.
The range of sociological documents reflecting various aspects of social life is so wide that any empirical sociological research must begin with an analysis of the information available on the problem of interest to the researcher.
According to the form of recording, documents are:
1. Written documents– these are archive materials, statistical reporting, scientific publications; press, personal documents (letters, autobiographies, memoirs, diaries, etc.).
2. Iconographic documents– these are works of fine art (paintings, engravings, sculptures), as well as films, videos and photographic documents.
3. Phonetic documents– these are disks, tape recordings, gramophone records. They are interesting as a reproduction of past events.
There are two main types of documentation analysis:
Traditional analysis– this is an interpretation of the content of a document, its interpretation. It is based on a mechanism for understanding text. Traditional analysis allows you to cover the deep, hidden aspects of the content of a document. The weak point of this method is subjectivity.
Formalized analysis– quantitative method of document analysis (content analysis). The essence of this method comes down to finding such easily countable signs, features, properties of a document (for example, the frequency of use of certain terms), which would necessarily reflect certain essential aspects of the content. Then the content becomes measurable, accessible to precise computational operations. The results of the analysis become sufficiently objective.
Observation in sociological research, it is a method of collecting primary information about the object being studied through direct perception and direct recording of all facts relating to the object being studied.
Observation is rarely the primary method for collecting social information. It is usually used along with other methods and serves specific purposes.
Depending on the degree of participation of the observer in the social situation under study, the following are distinguished:
1. Uninvolved (external) observation. The researcher or his assistants are located outside the object being studied. They observe the ongoing processes from the outside, do not interfere in their course, do not ask any questions - they simply record the course of events.
2. Participant observation, in which the observer, to one degree or another, is directly involved in the process being studied, is in contact with the people being observed and takes part in their activities.
Experiment in sociology - a method of obtaining information about an object as a result of the influence of certain controlled and adjustable factors on it. According to the specifics of the task at hand, they are distinguished:
Research experiment. In the course of this experiment, a hypothesis is tested that contains new scientific information that has not yet been sufficiently confirmed or has not been proven at all.
2. Practical experiment– involves numerous processes of experimentation in the sphere of social relations. This refers to the processes of experimentation that occur in the course of, for example, improving the education and training system.
The division of experiments into scientific research and practical is conditional, since a practical experiment often allows one to obtain new information of a scientific nature, and a scientific experiment ends with practical recommendations in one or another area of public life.
Sociological research is a unique system of organizational and technical procedures through which it is possible to obtain scientific knowledge about social phenomena. This is a system of theoretical and empirical procedures that are collected into methods of sociological research.
Types of research
Before we begin to consider the main methods of sociological research, it is worth studying their varieties. They are divided into three large groups: by purpose, by duration and depth of analysis.
According to the objectives, sociological research is divided into fundamental and applied. Fundamental ones determine and study social trends and patterns of social development. The results of these studies help solve complex problems. In turn, applied studies study specific objects and deal with solving certain problems that are not of a global nature.
All methods of sociological research differ from each other in their duration. So, there are:
- Long-term studies that last more than 3 years.
- Medium-term valid from six months to 3 years.
- Short-term ones last from 2 to 6 months.
- Express studies are carried out very quickly - from 1 week to 2 months maximum.
Research also differs in its depth, being divided into exploratory, descriptive and analytical.
Exploratory research is considered the simplest; it is used when the subject of research has not yet been studied. They have simplified tools and programs, and are most often used in the preliminary stages of larger-scale studies in order to set guidelines on what and where exactly to collect information.
Through descriptive research, scientists gain a holistic understanding of the phenomena being studied. They are carried out based on the full program of the chosen method of sociological research, using detailed tools and a large number of people to conduct surveys.
Analytical studies describe social phenomena and the reasons for their occurrence.
About methodology and methods
Reference books often contain such concepts as methodology and methods of sociological research. For those who are far from science, it is worth explaining one fundamental difference between them. Methods are methods of using organizational and technical procedures designed to collect sociological information. Methodology is a set of all possible research methods. Thus, the methodology and methods of sociological research can be considered related concepts, but not identical.
All methods that are known in sociology can be divided into two large groups: methods that are intended for collecting melons, and those that are responsible for their processing.
In turn, sociological research methods responsible for collecting data are divided into quantitative and qualitative. Qualitative methods help the scientist understand the essence of the phenomenon that occurred, while quantitative methods show how massively it has spread.
The family of quantitative methods of sociological research includes:
- Social survey.
- Content analysis of documents.
- Interview.
- Observation.
- Experiment.
Qualitative methods of sociological research include focus groups and case studies. This also includes unstructured interviews and ethnographic research.
As for the methods of analyzing sociological research, these include all kinds of statistical methods, such as ranking or scaling. To be able to apply statistics, sociologists use special software, such as OCA or SPSS.
Social survey
The first and main method of sociological research is considered to be a social survey. A survey is a method of collecting information about the object under study during a questionnaire or interview.
With the help of a social survey, you can obtain information that is not always displayed in documentary sources or cannot be noticed during the experiment. A survey is used when the necessary and only source of information is a person. Verbal information obtained through this method is considered more reliable than any other. It is easier to analyze and turn into quantitative indicators.
Another advantage of this method is that it is universal. During the interview, the interviewer records the motives and results of the individual's activities. This allows you to obtain information that none of the methods of sociological research can provide. In sociology, the concept of reliability of information is of great importance - this is when a respondent gives the same answers to the same questions. However, under different circumstances, a person may answer differently, so how the interviewer knows how to take into account all conditions and influence them is of great importance. It is necessary to maintain in a stable state as many factors affecting reliability as possible.
Each begins with an adaptation phase, when the respondent receives a certain motivation to answer. This phase consists of a greeting and the first few questions. The content of the questionnaire, its purpose and rules for filling it out are first explained to the respondent. The second stage is achieving the goal, that is, collecting basic information. During the interview process, especially if the questionnaire is very long, the respondent's interest in the task may fade. Therefore, questionnaires often use questions whose content is interesting to the subject, but may be absolutely useless for research.
The last stage of the survey is completion of the work. At the end of the questionnaire, there are usually easy questions written, most often this role is played by a demographic card. This method helps relieve tension, and the respondent will be more loyal to the interviewer. After all, as practice shows, if you do not take into account the condition of the subject, then the majority of respondents refuse to answer questions already halfway through the questionnaire.
Content analysis of documents
Also to sociological methods Research includes document analysis. In terms of popularity, this technique is second only to opinion polls, but in certain areas of research, content analysis is considered the main one.
Content analysis of documents is widespread in the sociology of politics, law, civil movements etc. Very often, by studying documents, scientists come up with new hypotheses, which are later tested using survey methods.
A document is a means of verifying information regarding facts, events or phenomena of objective reality. When using documents, it is worth taking into account the experience and traditions of a particular field, as well as related humanities. During the analysis, it is worthwhile to think critically about the information; this will help to correctly assess its objectivity.
Documents are classified according to different criteria. Depending on the methods of recording information, they are divided into written, phonetic, and iconographic. If we take into account authorship, then documents can be of official or personal origin. Motives also influence the creation of documents. Thus, provoked and unprovoked materials are distinguished.
Content analysis is the precise study of the content of a text array in order to determine or measure the social trends described in these arrays. This is a specific method of scientific-cognitive activity and sociological research. It is best used when there is a large volume of unsystematized material; if the text cannot be examined without summary assessments or when it is necessary high level accuracy.
For example, literary scholars have been trying for a very long time to establish which of the endings of “The Mermaid” belongs to Pushkin. With the help of content analysis and special computing programs, it was possible to establish that only one of them belongs to the author. Scientists made this conclusion, basing their opinion on the fact that each writer has his own style. The so-called frequency dictionary, that is, the specific repetition of various words. Having compiled the writer’s dictionary and comparing it with the frequency dictionary of all possible endings, we found out that it was the original version of “The Mermaid” that was identical to Pushkin’s frequency dictionary.
The main thing in content analysis is to correctly identify semantic units. They can be words, phrases and sentences. By analyzing documents in this way, a sociologist can easily understand the main trends, changes and predict further development in a certain social segment.
Interview
Another method of sociological research is interviews. It means personal communication between the sociologist and the respondent. The interviewer asks questions and records the answers. The interview can be direct, that is, face to face, or indirect, such as by telephone, mail, online, etc.
According to the degree of freedom, interviews are:
- Formalized. In this case, the sociologist always strictly follows the research program. In sociological research methods, this method is often used in indirect surveys.
- Semi-formalized. Here the order of questions and their wording may change depending on how the conversation is going.
- Unformalized. Interviews can be conducted without questionnaires; depending on the course of the conversation, the sociologist himself chooses questions. This method is used for pilot or expert interviews, when there is no need to compare the results of the work performed.
Depending on who is the carrier of information, surveys are:
- Massive. Here the main sources of information are representatives of various social groups.
- Specialized. When only people knowledgeable in a particular survey are interviewed, which allows you to get completely authoritative answers. This survey is often called an expert interview.
In short, the sociological research method (in this particular case, interviews) is a very flexible tool for collecting primary information. Interviews are indispensable if you need to study phenomena that cannot be observed from the outside.
Observation in sociology
This is a method of purposefully recording information about the object of perception. In sociology, a distinction is made between scientific and everyday observation. Character traits scientific research - purposefulness and planning. Scientific observation is subject to certain goals and is carried out according to a pre-prepared plan. The researcher records the observation results and monitors their stability. There are three main features of observation:
- The sociological research method assumes that knowledge of social reality is closely related to the personal preferences of the scientist and his value orientations.
- The sociologist emotionally perceives the object of observation.
- It is difficult to repeat the observation, since objects are always exposed to various factors that change them.
Thus, when observing, the sociologist faces a number of difficulties of a subjective nature, since he interprets what he sees through the prism of his judgments. As for objective problems, here we can say the following: not all social facts can be observed, all observable processes are limited in time. Therefore, this method is used as an additional method for collecting sociological information. Observation is used if you need to deepen your knowledge or when it is impossible to obtain the necessary information by other methods.
The observation program consists of the following stages:
- Definition of goals and objectives.
- Selecting the type of observation that most accurately meets the objectives.
- Identifying an object and subject.
- Selecting a data recording method.
- Interpretation of the information received.
Types of surveillance
Each specific method of sociological observation is classified according to various signs. The observation method is no exception. According to the degree of formalization it is divided into structuralized And not structured. That is, those that are carried out according to a pre-planned plan and spontaneously, when only the object of observation is known.
According to the observer's position, experiments of this kind are included And not included. In the first case, the sociologist takes direct part in the object being studied. For example, contacts the subject or participates in the same activity with the subjects being studied. With non-participant observation, the scientist simply watches how events develop and records them. Depending on the location and conditions of observation, there are field And laboratory For laboratory tests, candidates are specially selected and some situation is played out, but in the field, the sociologist simply monitors how individuals act in their natural environment. There are also observations systematic, when carried out repeatedly to measure the dynamics of change, and random(that is, disposable).
Experiment
For sociological research methods, the collection of primary information plays a paramount role. But it is not always possible to observe a certain phenomenon or find respondents who have been in specific social conditions. So sociologists are starting to conduct experiments. This specific method is based on the fact that the researcher and the subject interact in an artificially created environment.
Experiments are used when it is necessary to test hypotheses regarding the causes of certain social phenomena. Researchers compare two phenomena, where one has a hypothetical cause for the change, and the other does not. If, under the influence of certain factors, the subject of the study acts as previously predicted, then the hypothesis is considered proven.
Experiments happen research And confirming. Research helps determine the cause of certain phenomena, and confirmatory ones establish to what extent these reasons are true.
Before conducting an experiment, a sociologist must have all the necessary information about the research problem. First you need to formulate the problem and define key concepts. Next, identify variables, in particular external ones, that can significantly affect the course of the experiment. Particular attention should be paid to the selection of subjects. That is, take into account the characteristics of the general population, modeling it in a reduced format. Experimental and control subgroups should be equivalent.
During the experiment, the researcher directly influences the experimental subgroup, while the control group does not have any influence. The resulting differences are the independent variables from which new hypotheses are subsequently derived.
Focus group
Among qualitative methods In sociological research, focus groups have long been at the forefront. This method of obtaining information helps to obtain reliable data without requiring lengthy preparation and significant time expenditure.
To conduct a study, it is necessary to select from 8 to 12 people who were not previously familiar with each other, and appoint a moderator, someone who will conduct a dialogue with those present. All participants in the study should be familiar with the problem being studied.
A focus group is a discussion of a specific social problem, product, phenomenon, etc. The main task of the moderator is not to let the conversation fizzle out. It should encourage participants to express their opinions. To do this, he asks leading questions, provides quotes, or shows videos, asking for comments. In this case, each participant must express his opinion without repeating remarks that have already been made.
The entire procedure lasts approximately 1-2 hours, is recorded on video, and after the participants leave, the received material is reviewed, data is collected and interpreted.
Case study
Method No. 2 of sociological research in modern science- these are cases, or special cases. It originated in the Chicago School in the early twentieth century. Literally translated from English, case study means “case analysis.” This is a type of research where the object is a specific phenomenon, incident or historical figure. Researchers pay close attention to them in order to be able to predict in the future the processes that may occur in society.
There are three main approaches to this method:
- Nomothetic. A single phenomenon is reduced to a general one, the researcher compares what happened with the norm and concludes how likely the mass spread of this phenomenon is.
- Ideographic. The individual is considered unique, the so-called exception to the rule, which cannot be repeated in any social environment.
- Integrated. The essence of this method is that during analysis the phenomenon is considered both unique and general, this helps to find the features of a pattern.
Ethnographic research
Ethnographic research plays a significant role in the study of society. The main principle is the naturalness of data collection. The essence of the method is simple: the closer the research situation is to everyday life, the more realistic the results will be after collecting materials.
The task of researchers who work with ethnographic data is to describe in detail the behavior of individuals in certain conditions and give them meaning.
The ethnographic method is represented by a kind of reflective approach, in the center of which is the researcher himself. He studies materials that are informal and contextual. These could be diaries, notes, stories, newspaper clippings, etc. Based on these, the sociologist must create a detailed description of the life world of the public being studied. This method of sociological research allows us to obtain new ideas for research from theoretical data that were not previously taken into account.
It depends on the problem of study which method of sociological research the scientist will choose, but if one is not found, a new one can be created. Sociology is a young science that is still developing. Every year, more and more new methods of studying society appear, which make it possible to predict its further development and, as a result, prevent the inevitable.
Sociologists have in their arsenal and use a wide variety of methods scientific research. Let's consider the main ones:
1. Observation method.
Observation is the direct recording of facts by an eyewitness. Unlike ordinary scientific observation, it has the following features:
subordinated to research goals and objectives;
has a plan and procedure for collecting information;
observation data are recorded in diaries or protocols according to specific system. Depending on the position of the observer, there are:
included (participant) observation;
simple observation, when social facts are recorded by an observer who is not a direct participant in the events.
2. Study of documentary sources.
Documentary in sociology refers to any information recorded in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic tape, film, photographic film, computer floppy disk or any other medium. Documentary sources can be classified on several grounds.
in relation to the state:
official, i.e. created and approved by officially existing (registered, accredited, licensed government agencies for a certain type of activity) by organizations and individuals, as well as by government agencies themselves. Official documents may include materials, resolutions, statements, minutes and transcripts of meetings, state statistics, archives of parties and organizations, financial papers, etc.;
unofficial documentary sources are documents compiled by persons and organizations not authorized by the state for this type of activity;
in relation to the individual:
personal, i.e. directly related to a specific individual (for example, cards individual accounting, characteristics, questionnaires certified by signature, diaries, letters);
impersonal, not directly related to a specific person (statistical materials, press reports);
in relation to the participation in recorded events of the person who compiled this document:
primary, i.e. compiled by a participant in the events or the first researcher of a given phenomenon;
secondary documentary sources (obtained on the basis of primary ones).
It should be said about the problem of the reliability of documentary sources, which can be intentionally or unintentionally distorted. The reliability or unreliability of documentary sources is determined:
the environment in which the document was created;
purpose of drawing up the document.
The study of documentary sources is carried out using various techniques. One of the most common and fairly simple ones is content analysis. Its essence lies in translating textual information into quantitative indicators, using semantic, qualitative and quantitative units. The technique of content analysis was created by American sociologist Harold Lasswell during World War II to objectively analyze newspaper and magazine articles for their fascist orientation. Based on content analysis in the United States, the pro-fascist position of the newspaper “The True American” was proven, which, despite its patriotic name, conducted fascist propaganda. The table below illustrates the study of documentary sources using content analysis. The purpose of the study is to select from several applicants who could fill the vacant position (Table 16).
Similar tables can be compiled based on documentary sources of all applicants. The winner is the applicant who scores the largest amount points. Of course, before making a final decision, the HR manager must use other methods of studying applicants.
The reliability of information obtained using content analysis is ensured by:
control with the help of experts;
control by independent criterion (by observation of the control group);
re-encoding of text by different encoders. 3. Survey method.
Surveys are an indispensable method of obtaining information about the subjective world of people, about public opinion. The survey method, unlike the previous ones, allows us to more or less objectively model people's behavior. If we compare it with the two previous methods we considered, it can be noted that it neutralizes such shortcomings as the length of time for collecting data by observation, the difficulty of identifying motives and, in general, internal personal attitudes by analyzing documents. But when using the survey method, certain difficulties also arise. Using the survey method, you can ask the question: “How would you behave in this or that situation?”, but you should keep in mind that when answering such questions, people are always trying to present themselves in the most favorable light, and not at all to give you an objective information about your behavior.
Sociologists in their research activities Various types of surveys are used.
Types and techniques of surveys
1. An interview is a conversation conducted according to a specific plan, involving direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent (respondent).
An equivalent of such a conversation is the so-called free interview - usually a long conversation not according to a strict plan, but according to an approximate program (interview guide).
Based on the depth of penetration into the essence of problems, a distinction is made between clinical (in-depth) and focused interviews. The purpose of the first is to obtain information about the internal motivations and inclinations of the respondent, the second is to find out the reaction to a given influence. Based on the nature of the organization, interviews are divided into:
group, which are rarely used (for example, group conversation with discussion);
individual, which, in turn, are divided into personal and telephone.
2. The second type of survey is a questionnaire survey, which involves a strictly fixed order, content and form of questions, and a clear indication of the form of the answer. A questionnaire survey can be conducted either by direct survey, which is carried out in the presence of the questionnaire, or in the form of a correspondence survey.
To conduct any questionnaire survey, a questionnaire is required. What types of questions might it include?
Open question. The answer is given in free form.
Closed question. Respondents answer it either “yes” or “no”, i.e. the answer options are provided in advance.
Semi-closed question (combines the previous two).
There is also such a type of questionnaire as a lightning survey (poll-voting, public opinion polling). It is used in public opinion surveys and usually contains only 3-4 questions regarding basic information of interest plus a few questions related to demographic and social characteristics respondents.
Questionnaire surveys are used to study a wide variety of problems. Therefore, they are very diverse in their topics and content, for example:
event questionnaires;
aimed at clarifying value orientations;
statistical questionnaires;
timing budgets, etc.
It should be noted that the depth and completeness of the information reflected in the questionnaire significantly depend on the general culture and outlook of the respondent.
The reliability of information can be determined using so-called trap questions. For example, in one of the regions of Russia, when conducting a questionnaire survey of readers, the following trap question was asked: “Did you like the book by science fiction writer N. Yakovlev “The Long Twilight of Mars”?” And although such a book and writer does not exist, nevertheless, 10% of respondents “read” this book and most of them “did not like it.”
The English sociologist Eysenck uses the so-called “lie scale” - a series of questions that help expose insincere respondents. He quietly inserts these questions into the questionnaire. Among them are the following:
Are you completely free from all prejudices?
Do you like to brag sometimes?
Do you always answer emails?
Have you sometimes told a lie?
Persons who fall into the “trap” are suspected of insincerity, and their profiles are not taken into account when processing the collected data.
Concluding our consideration of survey methods, let us dwell at least briefly on the technique of conducting them.
An ideal interview resembles a lively and relaxed conversation between two people equally interested in it, however, according to the English sociologist V. Goode, this is a pseudo-conversation, since the interviewer acts as a professional researcher imitating the role of an equal interlocutor. His task is to collect information about his “interlocutor”. To do this, he uses certain techniques.
Psychological contact with the respondent provides many advantages. Obtaining inaccessible information through a questionnaire survey does not provide the depth and completeness that is achieved through personal communication during an interview. But the reliability of the data is higher with a questionnaire survey.
During an interview, there is a danger of the interviewer influencing the respondent, since the first one fits the second one into a certain type of personality and, voluntarily or unwittingly, begins to ask appropriate questions. It is necessary to strive to overcome stereotyping by playing out different hypotheses of the respondent’s perception.
When conducting an interview, you should follow these simple rules:
It is best to start a conversation with a neutral topic that does not relate to the problems that will be raised in the interview;
behave relaxed and natural;
do not put pressure on the respondent;
the tempo of speech is “adjusted” to the tempo of the respondent’s speech;
remember that the best results are obtained when the interviewer and respondent are approximately the same age and opposite gender;
try to create an environment of psychological comfort (conduct the conversation while sitting, indoors, in the absence of strangers);
It’s better when one person conducts the conversation and another takes notes; the presence of a notepad and recording equipment embarrasses both the respondent and the interviewer.
In its most general form, the interview algorithm may look like this:
establishing contact (introduce yourself, get to know each other);
consolidating contact (showing the importance of the information received, interest in it; respect for the respondent);
moving on to the main interview questions.
In addition to the actual sociological research methods, sociology also uses other methods borrowed, for example, from psychology, such as psychological tests and sociometry. So sociology to collect necessary information uses both sociological methods (observation, study of documents, surveys) and methods of psychology and other sciences.
Using these methods, sociologists collect social facts. However, sociological research does not end with collecting information. Its next stage (phase) is the analysis of empirical data.
Analysis of empirical data
At this stage, special analysis methods are used. Such analysis methods are:
grouping and typology of information;
searching for relationships between variables;
social experiment.
Let's take a closer look at these methods.
1. Method of grouping and typology of information.
Grouping is the classification or ordering of data according to one characteristic. Linking facts into a system is carried out in accordance with the scientific hypothesis and the tasks being solved.
For example, if you want to find out how the level of knowledge and experience influences the management capabilities of people, then the collected information can be grouped according to the criteria of quality of education and length of work.
Typologization is the search for stable combinations of properties of social objects considered in several dimensions simultaneously.
2. Search for relationships between variables.
We illustrate this method of analysis with a specific example. Let’s say that while carrying out rationalization work in a company, certain data were collected. If you put them in a table, you can see a certain relationship between the percentage of participation in rationalization work (the first variable) and the educational level and qualifications (the second variable) (Table 17).
3. Sociological experiment.
A sociological experiment is most often considered as a method of testing a scientific hypothesis. For example, the famous Hawthorne experiment, when the relationship between workplace illumination and labor productivity was tested (for more details, see pp. 144–145). Despite the fact that the hypothesis was not confirmed, the experiment discovered a completely new effect - the human factor of production. This is an example of a so-called natural experiment. However, it is not always possible to conduct a natural experiment. For example, no one will decide on such a method by exploring social relations operators during the liquidation of a nuclear accident. In such difficult situations, sociologists conduct a thought experiment - they operate with information about past events and predict their possible consequences.
These are the main methods of sociological research and methods of their application.
Questions for self-control
Name the phases of scientific research.
What requirements must a scientific hypothesis satisfy?
What does the research plan include?
What are the objective difficulties of collecting data in sociological research?
What requirements must a scientific classification satisfy?
What is scientific explanation and verification of sociological research?
What are social facts?
List the main methods of sociological research.
What is scientific observation?
Describe the study of documentary sources as a method of sociological research.
What is content analysis?
What types of surveys do you know?
What is an open and closed question?
How is the accuracy of information verified during surveys?
Name the basic techniques for conducting a survey.
What is grouping and typology of information?
Name the types of sociological experiments.
Literature
Batygin G.S. Lectures on the methodology of sociological research. M., 1995.
Voronov Yu. P. Methods of collecting information in sociological research. M., 1974.
Zdravomyslov A. G. Methodology and procedure of sociological research. M., 1969.
Ivanov V.N. Current problems of sociological research in modern stage. M., 1974.
How to conduct sociological research / Ed. M. K. Gorshkova, F. E. Sheregi. M., 1990.
Markovich D. General sociology. Rostov, 1993. Ch. 2.
Yadov V. A. Sociological research: methodology, program, methods. M., 1988.
PLAN
1. Essence, typology and stages of sociological research.
2. Sociological research program.
3. Basic methods of collecting, processing and analyzing sociological information.
The history of the emergence and development of sociology is inextricably linked with empirical (applied) research - sources of new knowledge necessary both for the development of theories and for the regulation of social processes. Direct recognition sociological research(as empirical sociology is simply called) received at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, they replaced individual ways accumulation of sociological knowledge and relied on the practice of socio-statistical observations and social surveys.
The idea of research was borrowed by sociology from natural science, economics, ethnography, and law, where the forms of empirical and experimental research were established earlier. The twentieth century was a time of rapid development of empirical sociology, and the center of its formation was the University of Chicago (Chicago School of Life). Here in the 20-30s. multi-purpose applied research developed, marking the bright flowering of empirical sociology. This direction was focused on detailed studies of private local areas: understanding the living process of people’s life in specific situations.
Adaptation most general principles, provisions and methods that form the basis of sociological knowledge, to the specific features of the phenomenon or process being studied, to the specifics of the problems being solved, is expressed in the methodology of sociological research. The methodology of sociological research is a set of operations, procedures for establishing social facts, their processing and analysis. The set of skills, abilities, and techniques for organizing and conducting sociological research (for example, the art of compiling questionnaires, constructing scales, etc.) is called its technique.
Sociological research is a tool for studying social phenomena in their specific state using methods that allow for quantitative and qualitative collections, measurements, generalizations, and analysis of sociological information.
Sociological research is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological, organizational and technical procedures interconnected by a single goal: to obtain reliable information about the phenomena and processes that are being studied, about the trends and contradictions of their development, so that these data can be used in social practice .
Sociological research is a multifaceted scientific process of developing new knowledge, which combines the theoretical, methodological and empirical levels of social knowledge, which accordingly ensures its integrity and gives a specific idea of any aspect of social reality, of various types of social activities of people. Sociological research is driven by the social need for social knowledge, for social orientation.
It reflects the interests of certain class, social group and other forces aimed at establishing or changing the relationships between individuals, social groups and society. In this regard, sociological research is an integral part of the scientific and social process, reflects the worldview of the sociologist and is determined by his social position. Sociological research is a type professional activity people who have received special training. The term “sociological research” was established no earlier than the late 20s and early 30s of the twentieth century.
Depending on the level of scientific knowledge, sociological research is divided into theoretical and empirical. Research focused on collecting and analyzing data using methods, techniques and techniques of sociological research is called empirical. Empirical research can be carried out within the framework of both fundamental and applied sociology. If its goal is to build a theory, then it belongs to fundamental research, if the development of practical recommendations, then to applied research.
In sociology there are not only theoretical and applied research, but also mixed or complex, in which not only scientific but also practical problems are solved. Regardless of whether the research is carried out at one or two (theoretical and empirical) levels of sociological knowledge, or whether it is only scientific or applied, it, as a rule, also contains the solution of methodological issues.
Depending on the complexity and scale of tasks to be solved There are three main types of sociological research: reconnaissance (aerobatic, sounding), descriptive and analytical.
Intelligence research- preliminary research conducted with the aim of checking, clarifying all elements and tools of the main study, making the necessary adjustments to them. It covers small populations of people and, as a rule, precedes deeper and larger-scale research.
Descriptive research aims to determine the structure, form and nature of the phenomenon or process being studied, which allows us to form a relatively holistic idea of it. It covers fairly large populations of people, heterogeneous in their characteristics, helps to better understand the situation, more deeply substantiate and rationally determine the ways, forms and methods of managing social processes.
Analytical research consists not only in describing the structural elements of the phenomenon or process being studied, but also in identifying the reasons underlying it. Thus, if in the course of a descriptive study it is established whether there is a connection between the characteristics of the phenomenon under study, then in the course of an analytical study it is determined whether the previously identified relationship is causal in nature. This is the most profound and large-scale type of research, differing from others not only in the complexity and content of its preparatory stage and the stage of collecting primary sociological information, but also in a more thorough approach to the analysis, generalization and explanation of the results obtained.
A type of analytical research can be considered experiment. Its implementation involves the creation of an experimental situation by changing in one way or another the usual conditions of functioning of a social object.
Social phenomena or processes can be studied both statically and dynamically. In the first case we are dealing with one-time (spot) research, in the second - with repeated. Spot study provides information about the state and quantitative characteristics of a phenomenon or process at the time of its study. This information, in a certain sense, can be called static, since it reflects, as it were, a snapshot of an object, but does not answer the question about the trends of its change in time space.
Repeated are studies conducted sequentially at certain intervals, based on unified program and unified tools. They represent a method of comparative sociological analysis aimed at identifying the dynamics of development of a social object. A special type of repeated research is panel study: statistically based and conducted at certain intervals on the same population of people (for example, an annual, quarterly study of the budget of certain families). Panel research makes it possible to establish trends, the nature of changes in sentiment, public opinion orientations, etc., giving a dynamic picture of the social phenomena being studied.
Research is carried out both in laboratory and in natural conditions. For example, studying the socio-psychological climate in work crew carried out under normal living conditions. This type of research is called field Also distinguished cohort study involving research cohorts(from lat. cohorts - set, division) - groupings that include individuals selected on the basis that they experience the same events, processes in the same periods of time (for example, a cohort of persons born in a certain period of time) . If a sociological study covers all units (social objects) of the general population without exception, it is called solid. If only a certain part of social objects is examined, the study is called selective.
The choice of type of research is influenced by two circumstances:
1) purpose, practical and scientific feasibility of the study;
2) the essence and characteristics of the social object that will be studied.
Each study begins with preliminary organizational work with the customer (“client”), where the topic is determined, the general contours of the work are outlined, and issues of financial and logistical support are resolved. Then the actual research work begins.
In conducting sociological research, three main stages can be distinguished:
1) preparatory;
2) main (field);
3) final.
At the preparatory stage, a sociological research program is developed - a document containing methodological, methodological, organizational and technical justification for sociological research. At the second, field stage, sociological data is collected, at the third - their analysis, processing, generalization, and preparation of practical recommendations.
Thus, sociological research is a system of theoretical and empirical procedures that contribute to the acquisition of new knowledge in order to solve specific theoretical and social problems. A characteristic feature of sociological research is that the study of social processes is carried out through the analysis of human activity or its results, through identifying the needs and interests of people.
Conducting any sociological research necessarily begins with the development of its program, which is called a strategic document of scientific research, containing a comprehensive theoretical justification of methodological approaches and methodological techniques for studying the phenomenon under study. The processes of developing sociological theory and accumulating factual material represent an organic unity.
A sociological research program must answer two basic questions. Firstly, how to move from the initial theoretical principles of sociology to research, how to “translate” them into research tools, methods of collecting, processing and analyzing material. Secondly, how to rise again from the obtained facts, from the accumulated empirical material to theoretical generalizations, so that the research not only gives practical recommendations, but also serves as the basis for the further development of the theory itself.
Adaptation of the most general principles, provisions and methods that form the basis of sociological knowledge to the specific features of the phenomenon or process being studied, to the specifics of the problems being solved, is expressed in the methodology of sociological research.
Methodology of sociological research - a set of operations, techniques, procedures for establishing social facts, their processing and analysis. The set of skills, abilities, and techniques for organizing and conducting sociological research (for example, the art of compiling questionnaires, constructing scales, etc.) is called its technique.
A program is a statement of the general concept of research, which includes step-by-step programming and rules of procedures for scientific and practical research activities.
Program functions:
1. Theoretical and methodological , which allows you to define a scientific problem and prepare the basis for its solution.
2. Methodological, which allows you to outline ways to collect data and describe the expected results.
3. Organizational, which allows you to plan the researcher’s activities at all stages of work.
Basic requirements for the program:
1) necessity;
2) explicitness (clarity, clarity);
3) flexibility;
4) logical sequence of structure.
The structure of the program includes three sections - methodological, procedural (or methodological) and organizational.
The sociological research program consists of three sections: methodological, methodological (or procedural) and organizational.
The methodological section of the sociological research program contains the following elements:
1. Formulation of the research problem.
Problem- this is a form of interrogative statements expressing uncertainty, which is subject to a scientific and practical solution. Its formulation is the initial link of any sociological research, since the problem itself is a social task that needs a direct solution. In turn, the posed problem subordinates all cognitive actions of the researcher to its solution and determines the composition of cognitive actions. In the process of posing a problem, two main procedures can be distinguished: understanding the problem situation and formulating (developing) the problem.
Problem situation- this is a contradiction that actually exists in social reality, the methods (algorithm) for resolving it at the moment are not yet known (not clear). It is ignorance of the ways, means and methods of solving the emerging contradiction that forces one to turn to science for help (“social order”). The formulation of the research problem involves carrying out certain theoretical work, in particular, identifying exactly which aspects of the problem sociology can solve, which elements of the problem are main and which are secondary, and most importantly - which aspects of the problem have already been solved by other studies, and which remain to be solved in this research (scientific problem).
The problem is formulated in the form of clear questions or attitudes, for example:
Question: What are the reasons for such and such phenomena?
Installation: Find ways to solve this and that. Build a model that explains this range of factors.
The research problem must be formulated in scientific terms, that is, based on developed systems of theoretical knowledge in this area, and adequately reflecting the content of the issue (attitude). The problem becomes visible when it is caught in some social phenomenon, i.e. by highlighting the object and subject of research.
Object of study - a phenomenon or sphere of social reality that acts as direct carriers of a problem situation towards which cognitive activity is directed .
Subject of study - these are the sides, properties, characteristics of an object that are subject to direct study in this study.
No single study is able to cover the entire variety of interactions that characterize a given object. Therefore, in the subject of research, the spatial boundaries within which the object is studied, a temporary boundary (a certain period of time), are indicated. Isolating the object and subject of research allows us to move on to defining the purpose and objectives of the study.
Under purpose of the study refers to the final result that the researcher intends to obtain after completion of the work. This result can be epistemological, applied, or both. As a rule, the purpose of the research is determined jointly with the customer.
IN research objectives contains the range of problems that need to be analyzed in order to answer the main target research question. For example, if the purpose of the study is to study the influence of family upbringing on the formation of deviant (deviant) behavior of adolescents, then among the research objectives we can highlight such as determining the role of the father and mother in the formation of the adolescent’s personality, studying the family value system, etc. All these are links that help to see the integrity of the phenomenon and the processes to be studied.
The next step in developing a research program is the interpretation and operationalization of the basic concepts that are presented in the conceptual model of the problem situation and the domain of analysis.
Interpretation of concepts - theoretical clarification of the basic (initial) concepts is carried out so that researchers clearly and clearly understand the content (meaning) of the concepts (terms) with which they work, use them uniformly, without allowing different interpretations the same concept. The empirical interpretation of concepts is a directly sociological task: it is a scientific procedure of transition from the content of basic concepts through a hierarchy of mediating concretizing ones to potentially accessible fixation and measurement units of the sought information (indicators).
Empirical indicator is a fact used for empirical measurement. Target operationalization of concepts- establishing a connection between the conceptual apparatus of research and its methodological tools. It combines into a single whole the problems of concept formation, measurement techniques and search for indicators. For example, such a concept as “attitude towards work” cannot be expressed in indicators, i.e. in the characteristics of the object that are accessible to observation and measurement. This concept can be decomposed into three components, which are intermediate concepts: attitude towards work as a value, attitude towards one’s profession, attitude towards this work at a given enterprise.
The latter also need to be decomposed into a number of objective characteristics - attitude to work (labor discipline, labor productivity, etc.) and a number of subjective characteristics - attitude to work (degree of job satisfaction, etc.). Then, each of this operational definition of the concept needs to be offered empirical indicators and a system of research tools for fixing them.
The operational definition of the concept is this is the operation of decomposing its theoretical content into empirical equivalents that are available for recording and measurement. Operationalization allows us to establish what sociological data should be collected about. The meaning of these operations is a transition from the theoretical development of a program to empirical sociological research: the way opens for the use of sampling methods, collection and analysis of sociological information in research.
The next stage is the development of hypotheses. A hypothesis (from the Greek hypothesis - basis, proposal) is a well-founded scientific assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon and requires verification. A hypothesis is a form of conjecture or assumption in which the knowledge contained is probabilistic. This is a preliminary “project” for solving the problem, the truth of which remains to be verified. According to the objectives of the study, hypotheses are main and non-main, according to the sequence of development - primary and secondary, according to content - descriptive (about the essential properties of the object), explanatory (assumptions about the significance of factors), predictive (about trends).
The hypothesis put forward must meet a number of requirements:
1) it should not contain concepts that do not have empirical indicators within the framework of this study;
2) must be accessible to verification (verification) during the study;
4) must be simple and not contain various kinds of conditions and reservations.
The hypothesis put forward must be sufficiently theoretically reliable, consistent with previous knowledge, and it must not contradict the facts of science. Hypotheses that meet these requirements are called working (working in this study); this is a preliminary (presumptive) explanation of the phenomenon, sufficient for further empirical study of the research problem.
Proving the reliability of hypotheses becomes the main task of subsequent empirical research, since the goal of any scientific research is not their formulation, but the acquisition of new scientific and practical knowledge (discoveries), which enrich science with knowledge of fundamentally new facts and develop ways and means of purposefully influencing the problem. situation and its resolution. Confirmed hypotheses become theory and law and are used for implementation in practice. Those that are not confirmed are either discarded or become the basis for putting forward new hypotheses and new directions in the study of the problem situation.
The methodological section of the sociological research program is organically interconnected with the procedural section. If the first lays down the research methodology, then the second reveals its procedure, that is, the sequence of research operations.
Procedural (or methodological) section of the program sociological research consists of the following components:
Determination of the sample population to be surveyed, that is, the rationale for the sampling system. The main idea of sampling is to judge the general part by part, and through a small representation (micromodel) to judge the general (macromodel). This essence was wittily expressed by J. Gallup: “If you mix the soup well, the cook will take one spoon to taste and say what the whole pot tastes like!” The sampling system includes the population and the sample frame .
Population- this is the entire set of survey units that is relevant to a given problem, although it may be limited by territory, time, profession, and functional framework. A survey of the entire population (for example, all university students in Donetsk, or all residents of city N) requires significant financial and time expenditures.
Therefore, as a rule, a part of the elements of the general population is directly examined - the sample population,
Sample- this is the minimum representation of the composition of the surveyed units according to the selected parameters (criteria), which reproduces the law of distribution of the characteristic in this population.
The procedure for selecting part of the elements of a population, allowing one to draw conclusions about the entire set of elements, is called sampling. In addition to saving money and reducing research time, sampling implements the fundamental principle randomization(from the English random - complicit, chosen at random), that is, random selection. Only equality of chances of being included in the sample for each survey unit, that is, selection at random, guarantees against intentional or unintentional distortions.
The sampling procedure itself consists in the fact that the sampling unit is first determined - an element of the general population that acts as a unit of reference in various sampling procedures (this can be an individual, a group, an act of behavior, etc.). Then it is compiled sampling frame- a list (list) of elements of the general population that meets the requirements of completeness, accuracy, adequacy, ease of working with it, excluding duplication of observation units. This could be, for example, a list of all members of the subject labor collective or city residents. And from the sampling frame, observation units are selected.
The main types of sampling include:
1. Random sampling is a method in which the principle of equality of chances of being included in the sample is strictly observed for all units of the population being studied on the basis of statistical randomness (here they use a table of “random numbers”, selection by dates of birth, by surnames starting with certain letters, etc.) . Sampling can be simple random or multi-stage, when the selection is carried out in several stages.
2. Quota sampling(non-random) is the selection of people with a specific set of characteristics in accordance with given proportions.
3. Systematic(pseudo-random) sampling - a method in which the relationship between the sample size and the population size is used to determine the interval (sampling step) such that every sampling unit that is within the distance of that step is included in the sample (for example, every 10th or 20th on the list).
4. Serial (nested) a sample in which the selection units are statistical series, that is, a collection of statistically different units, which can be a family, a team, a student group, a department staff at a university, etc.
5. Stratified sampling, in which the general population is initially divided into private, internally homogeneous populations, “strata” (classes, layers), and then sampling units are selected within each population.
The sample size as the total number of survey units included in the sample population depends on the degree of homogeneity of the general population (if there are 100 apple trees of the same variety in the orchard, it is enough to try an apple from one tree to judge all the apples in the orchard), the required level of accuracy of the results, number of sample features. Sample size affects representation errors: the larger the sample size, the smaller the possible error. However, the intention of doubling the accuracy would require quadrupling the sample size. The measurement accuracy (representativeness) of 95% is sufficient for the study.
When defining the sample, it is important to prevent it offsets.
Sampling bias is the deviation of the sample structure from the actual structure of the population. The reasons for this may be different, but most often these are the so-called "systematic errors". They are caused by ignorance of the structure of the general population and the use of selection procedures that violate, for example, the proportionality in representation necessary for the representativeness of the sample various types elements of the general population. Systematic errors can also be caused by a conscious selection of the most “convenient”, winning elements of the general population.
The extent to which sampling bias can devalue the entire work of sociologists is demonstrated by a classic example from the history of sociological research in the United States. During the 1936 presidential election campaign, the Literary Digest magazine, based on a colossal study of mail surveys of several million readers, prepared an incorrect forecast, while George Gallup and Elmo Roper correctly predicted F. Roosevelt's victory based on only 4 thousand questionnaires. . The journal's staff seemed to have minimized the likelihood of so-called random error, which is caused by the difference in the size of the general and sample populations.
The smaller this difference, the lower the likelihood of random error. However, they allowed systematic error. They took the addresses for sending out questionnaires from the telephone book, and at that time in the United States only the wealthy, mainly homeowners, owned telephones. In this regard, the opinion of the respondents was not the statistical average, which could be extrapolated to the entire country. The bulk of the lower strata of the population remained unreached during the survey, but it was they who had a decisive influence on F. Roosevelt’s victory.
There is an opinion that the sample size should be from 1.5% to 10% of the general population, but not exceed 2000-2500 respondents. However, experience shows that when conducting public opinion polls, it is enough to include 500 - 1200 people in the sample in order to obtain reliable results. The Gallup Institute and other American organizations, based on a careful sample, distribute 1.5 - 2 thousand questionnaires. Each time, the number of questionnaires must be determined using mathematical sampling theory, taking into account the required accuracy, ensuring that all units in the population have the same chance of being selected for study.
The next component of the procedural section of the program is the definition methods for collecting primary sociological information.
When determining methods for collecting information, it is necessary to keep in mind that:
1) the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of research should not be ensured at the expense of the quality of sociological information;
2) none of the methods for collecting sociological data is universal, that is, each of them has clearly defined cognitive capabilities;
3) the reliability of a particular method is ensured not only by its validity and compliance with the goals and objectives of the study, but also by compliance with the rules and procedures for its practical application.
The choice of method depends, first of all, on the source of information. Documentary sources involve the use of the document analysis method, and if the source of information is external manifestations of social phenomena or acts of behavior, then the observation method is used. The survey method is used when the source of information is a person, his opinions, views, interests, and the experiment method is used in cases where the source of information is a specially created situation.
After determining the method or methods for collecting information, you can proceed to the development of research tools, that is, a set of methodological and technical techniques for conducting research, embodied in relevant operations and procedures and presented in the form of various documents.
Toolkit - This is a set of specially developed documents of a methodological nature, adapted to sociological methods, with the help of which the collection of sociological data is ensured.
The toolkit includes a questionnaire, an interview plan (questionnaire), an observation card, a content analysis form, instructions for the questionnaire (interviewer), coder, etc., methods for processing and analyzing data, including justification and a list of relevant social indicators (indicators) and scales , serving as a tool for assessing social information. It should be noted that the research tools are developed in close connection with the operationalized concept-scheme: choice of indicator - empirical indicators - source - construction of the tools.
Considering technological fundamentals program development, it is necessary to dwell on the problem of measurement, which should be provided for in the procedural (methodological) section of the program .
Measurement (quantification) is a procedure for assigning quantitative certainty to the qualitative characteristics being studied. The main measurement procedures are testing, ratings, expert assessments, popularity rankings, surveys. The facts used for sociological measurement are indicators, and finding them helps to understand how and in what form one should approach the collection of information.
All indicators are characterized by various characteristics, which in the toolkit act as options for answering questions. They are arranged in one or another sequence by position and form the corresponding measurement scale. The form of the scale can be verbal, that is, have a verbal expression.
For example, an indicator of such a social property as “education” is the “level of education”, and its characteristics:
Lower secondary;
Average general;
Specialized secondary;
Unfinished higher education;
This is the verbal position of the measurement scale. Scales can also be numerical (position in points) and graphic.
The following types of scales are distinguished:
1) nominal (unordered) - this is a scale of names consisting of a list of qualitative objective characteristics (for example, age, gender, occupation or motives, opinions, etc.);
2) rank (ordinal) - this is a scale for ordering the manifestations of the properties being studied in a strict order (from the most significant to the least or vice versa);
3) interval (metric) - this is a scale of differences (intervals) between ordered manifestations of the social property being studied, assigning points or numerical values to these divisions.
The main requirement for scales is to ensure reliability, which is achieved:
a) validity, i.e. validity, which implies that the scale measures exactly the property that the sociologist intended to study;
b) completeness, i.e. the fact that all indicator values are taken into account in the answer options to the question asked to the respondent;
c) sensitivity, i.e. the ability of the scale to differentiate the manifestations of the property being studied and express it by the number of scale positions (the more there are, the more sensitive the scale).
The methodological section of the program ends with a logical scheme for processing primary sociological information, which provides, first of all, for the processing, analysis and interpretation of the data obtained, as well as the formulation of appropriate conclusions based on them and the development of certain practical recommendations.
Organizational section of the program includes strategic and operational research plans.
The strategic plan for sociological research, depending on its type, has four options:
1) reconnaissance, when little is known about the object and there are no conditions for formulating hypotheses;
2) descriptive, when there is enough data about the object for descriptive hypotheses;
3) analytical-experimental, when there is complete knowledge about the object and conditions for explanatory prediction and functional analysis;
4) repeated-comparative, when it is possible to identify trends in the processes being studied.
The research work plan is a list, a diagram of the actions of sociologists in this study with the distribution of time, material and technical costs and a network schedule. It records all types of organizational and methodological work, from approving the program to formulating conclusions and practical recommendations for the customer of the sociological research. In addition, in the organizational section of the program, instructions for organizing field research, instructions for the questionnaire, and work rules and ethical standards are drawn up.
Thus, the first stage of sociological research is associated with the development of a program, which is a strategic document of scientific research, a theoretical and methodological basis for the entire set of research procedures. The results of sociological research depend on the quality of program development.
Differentiation of sociological methods allows us to consider each of them separately, emphasizing its specificity. The main methods of collecting primary sociological information are document analysis, survey, observation and experiment.
Document in sociology is a specially created object designed to transmit and store information.
Document analysis method is a method of data collection that involves obtaining and using information recorded in handwritten or printed texts, on magnetic tape, film and other media. Depending on the method of recording information, documents are classified into textual, statistical and iconographic (film and photographic documents, works visual arts). According to the reliability of documents, they distinguish between originals and copies, according to status - official and unofficial, according to the degree of personification - personal and impersonal, according to functions - informative and regulatory, according to content - historical, legal, economic.
Document analysis can be external and internal. External analysis involves establishing the time and circumstances of the appearance of the document, its type, form, authorship, purpose of creation, its general characteristics, reliability and validity.
Internal analysis of documents is a study of their content, the essence of the information contained in them, in the context of the research objectives. Methods of internal analysis - traditional and formalized, or content analysis.
Traditional (classic) is a method of qualitative analysis, which refers to mental operations to interpret and understand the essence of the information contained in documentary materials. In addition to traditional (classical, qualitative) document analysis, they also use content analysis (formalized, quantitative).
The first involves all the variety of mental operations aimed at interpreting the content of the document, and the second defines content units that can be unambiguously recorded and translated into quantitative indicators using certain units of counting. It is important to emphasize that content analysis uses content units in accordance with the research concept, the leading idea of the document text. Indicators of units can be individual concepts, topics, events, names. With the help of counting units, a quantitative assessment of the object is carried out, the frequency of manifestation of its signs in the field of view of the researcher, which is recorded with mathematical accuracy.
It is the high degree of accuracy with a large volume of material that is the advantage of content analysis. Its advantage over traditional methods also lies in the fact that the impressions of the researcher-observer, which depend on his personal qualities, are replaced by more standardized and neutral procedures, which mostly involve measurements, that is, the use of quantitative analysis techniques. But the limitation of this method is that not all the diversity of document content can be measured using quantitative indicators. Traditional and formalized methods of document analysis complement each other, compensating for each other's shortcomings.
The most common method of collecting primary information is a survey. A survey is a question-and-answer method of collecting sociological data, in which the source of information is the verbal message of people. It is based on a set of questions to the respondent, the answers to which provide the information the researcher needs. With the help of surveys, information is obtained both about events and facts, and about the opinions and assessments of the respondents. When studying the needs, interests, opinions, and value orientations of people, a survey may be the only source of information. Sometimes the information obtained by this method is supplemented by other sources (document analysis, observation).
There are different types of survey: written (questioning), oral (interviewing), expert survey (survey of competent persons) and sociometric survey (study of socio-psychological manifestations of interpersonal relationships in a group).
Depending on the form of contact, the following survey options are distinguished:
1) personal or indirect (distribution, mail, press, telephone) survey;
2) individual or group;
3) free or formalized, focused (directed);
4) continuous or selective;
5) at the place of residence or work, in temporary target audiences (train passengers, meeting participants).
Questionnaire - one of the main types of sociological survey, the essence of which is that respondents respond in writing to questions presented to them in the form of questionnaires. Using a written survey, you can reach a large number of respondents simultaneously in a relatively short period of time. A feature of a questionnaire survey is that the researcher cannot personally influence the course of the survey. The disadvantage of an absentee survey is that it does not guarantee full return of all questionnaires.
The central problem of a questionnaire survey is the formulation of questions to which respondents will answer.
Questionnaire questions are classified depending on their content:
Questions about facts, questions about knowledge, awareness, questions about behavior, questions about attitudes;
Depending on the formalization of the answer options: open (without pre-formulated answers);
Semi-closed (along with the answer options, space is left for free answers);
Closed (with pre-formulated answer options);
Depending on the functions performed: content-functional, serving directly to collect information on the topic of the survey;
Filter questions that allow you to “weed out” from the next question those respondents for whom this question is not intended;
Control (trap questions) designed to control the sincerity of the respondent;
Functional-psychological, serving to establish socio-psychological contact with the respondent.
To construct questions correctly, it is important to comply with the following basic requirements:
The question must strictly correspond to the indicator or operational concept that it describes and measures;
Unambiguously interpreted by the respondent;
Correspond to the cultural and educational level of the respondent;
Be worded neutrally;
Should not contain several questions;
Must obey the requirements of a “random variable”, i.e. the answer options must be equivalent and form a complete group of events;
Formulated lexically and grammatically correct;
The text of the question should not exceed 10-12 words.
The composition of the questionnaire should include a title page, introductory part, main (content part), socio-demographic part and question coding.
Interview- this is a conversation conducted on a predetermined topic, which is disclosed in a specially prepared questionnaire. The interviewer acts as a researcher who not only asks questions, but also directs the conversation, doing so discreetly.
There are several types of interviews: standardized (formalized), which uses a questionnaire with a clearly defined order and wording of questions in order to obtain the most comparable data collected by different interviewers; non-standardized (non-formalized) interview - a free dialogue on a specific topic, when questions (open) are formulated in the context of communication and the forms of recording answers are not standardized. In a semi-structured interview, both pre-prepared questions and additional questions are asked during the dialogue. There are also interviews based on location (at the workplace, in a relaxed atmosphere); according to the procedure (individual, group, one-act, multiple).
Method sociometry is used in the study of small groups and allows one to assess the relationships in the team, its informal structure, informal microgroups and the relationships between them. The essence of the method is to collect information about the structure of interpersonal relationships in a small group by studying the choice made by each group member according to one or another criterion.
The criteria for sociometric elections are formulated in the form of questions about the desire of a team member to participate with someone in a certain type of activity:
Carry out a responsible task together (reliability);
Eliminate a malfunction in a technical device (professionalism);
Spend a day off together (friendly predisposition), etc.
Each respondent is given a list of the group, in which each member is assigned a certain number, and is asked to make a choice from the proposed list according to a certain criterion. Based on the matrix, a sociogram is constructed (a graphic representation of the diagram of interpersonal relations), which allows you to see the structural elements of interpersonal relations in the team, the leaders of the team, and the microgroup.
Such forms of collecting sociological information as questionnaires, interviews, postal surveys, etc., are intended primarily for mass surveys. However, in practice, situations may arise when, in order to assess a phenomenon, it is difficult or even impossible to identify the object that is the carrier of the problem and, accordingly, use it as a source of information. Such situations are usually associated with an attempt to predict changes in a particular social process or phenomenon.
Objective information in this case can only come from competent persons - experts, having deep knowledge about the subject or object of research. The criteria for selecting experts are their occupation, work experience, level and nature of education, experience in a certain field of activity, age, etc. The central criterion for selecting experts is their competence. To determine it with varying degrees of accuracy, there are two methods: self-assessment of experts and collective assessment of the authority of experts.
Surveys of competent persons are called expert, and the survey results - expert assessments. In the most general form, two main functions of the expert assessment method in sociological research can be distinguished: assessment of the state (including causes) and forecast of development trends of various phenomena and processes of social reality. One of the most simple shapes expert forecast - an exchange of opinions involving the simultaneous presence of all experts behind the “ round table", where the dominant position on the issue under discussion is identified. More complex forms can also be used.
Observation in sociology, it is a method of collecting primary data through the perception and recording of events, behavior of people and groups related to the object being studied and significant from the point of view of the purpose of the study. In scientific observation, its organization is planned in advance, a methodology for recording, processing and interpreting data is developed, which ensures the relative reliability of the information obtained. The main object of observation is the behavior of individuals and social groups, as well as the conditions of their activities. Using the observation method, you can study real relationships in action, analyze the real lives of people, and the specific behavior of subjects of activity. When conducting observations, various forms and methods of registration are used: a form or observation diary, photo, film, video equipment, etc. At the same time, the sociologist records the number of manifestations of behavioral reactions.
A distinction is made between participant observation, in which the researcher receives information while being an actual participant in the group being studied in the process of a certain activity, and non-participant observation, in which the researcher is outside the object being studied. Observation is called field observation if it is carried out in real life situation, and laboratory, if carried out under artificially created and controlled conditions. Depending on the regularity of the observation, it can be systematic (carried out at certain intervals) or random.
According to the degree of formalization, a distinction is made between standardized (formalized) observation, when the elements of observation are predetermined and they are the object of attention and fixation of the observer, and non-standardized (unformalized), when the elements to be studied are not predetermined and the observer determines and records them during the observation. If observation is carried out with the consent of the observed, then it is called open; if group members do not know that their behavior and actions are being observed, then this is covert observation.
Observation is one of the main methods of collecting data, which either leads to hypotheses and serves as a springboard for the use of more representative methods, or is used at the final stage of mass research to clarify and interpret the main findings. Observation can be carried out either relatively independently or in combination with other methods, for example, experiment.
Social experiment - this is a method of obtaining new knowledge about the cause-and-effect relationships between indicators of the functioning, activity, behavior of a social object and the factors influencing it, which can be controlled in order to improve this social reality .
Conducting a social experiment requires a clearly formulated hypothesis about cause-and-effect relationships, the possibility of quantitative and qualitative influence of factors that are introduced during the experiment and change the behavior of the object of study, monitoring changes in the state of the object and conditions during the experiment. The logic of a social experiment is, for example, to select a particular group for an experiment, influence it using certain factors and monitor changes in characteristics that interest the researcher and are important for solving the main task.
Experiments are distinguished both by the nature of the experimental situation and by the logical sequence of proving the research hypothesis . According to the first criterion, experiments are divided into field and laboratory . In a field experiment, a group is in the natural conditions of its normal functioning (for example, students in a seminar class). In this case, group members may or may not be informed about their participation in the experiment. In a laboratory experiment, the situation, and often the experimental groups themselves, are formed artificially. Therefore, group members are usually informed about the experiment.
In field and laboratory experiments, surveys and observations can be used as additional methods of collecting information, the results of which adjust research activities.
According to the logical sequence of proof of the hypothesis, they are distinguished linear And parallel experiments. Linear experiment consists in the fact that the same group is subjected to analysis, which is both control and experimental at the same time. This means that before the start of the experiment, all control, factor characteristics that are introduced and changed by the researcher himself, and neutral characteristics that do not seem to take part in the experiment are recorded. After this, the factor characteristics of the group and/or the conditions of its functioning are changed, and then, after a certain time, the state of the group is again assessed (measured) according to its control characteristics.
In a parallel experiment, two groups simultaneously participate - control and experimental. They must be identical in all control and neutral characteristics. The characteristics of the control group remain constant throughout the experiment, while the characteristics of experimental group change. Based on the results of the experiment, the control characteristics of both groups are compared and conclusions are drawn about the causes and magnitude of the changes that occurred.
The successful conduct of this type of experiment depends to a large extent on the correct selection of participants.
The final stage of empirical sociological research involves processing, analyzing and interpreting data, obtaining empirically based generalizations, conclusions and recommendations.
The data processing stage includes several sequential actions:
1. editing of information, the main purpose of which is to verify, unify and formalize the information that was obtained during the study. First, the entire array of methodological tools is checked for accuracy, completeness and quality of completion, and poorly completed questionnaires are rejected.
The quality of primary sociological information, and, consequently, the reliability of conclusions and the validity of practical recommendations depend on the nature of the completion of questionnaires. If the questionnaire does not contain the respondent’s answers to more than 20% of questions, or to 2-3 in the socio-demographic block, then such questionnaires should be excluded from the main body as low-quality and capable of distorting sociological information.
2. Coding of information, its formalization, assigning certain conditional numbers-codes to each answer option, creating a system of numbers in which the order of the codes (numbers) itself is decisive.
Two types of procedures are used to encode information:
1) continuous numbering of all positions (ordinal coding system);
2) numbering of options only within one question (positional coding system).
3. After coding, they proceed directly to data processing (most often using a personal computer), to their generalization and analysis, for which mathematical, primarily statistical, methods are used.
But despite the relevance of the mathematical support for sociological analysis, in particular the generalization of data, the final result of the entire study depends, first of all, on how correctly, deeply and comprehensively the researcher can interpret the received material.
4. Interpretation procedure- this is the transformation of certain numerical values into a logical form - indicators (indicators). These indicators are no longer just numerical values (percentages, arithmetic average), but sociological data, assessed by correlating them with the original intentions of the researcher (the purpose and objectives of the study), his knowledge and experience. Each indicator, carrying a certain semantic load, indicates the direction of subsequent conclusions and recommendations.
Next, the assessment of the data obtained is given, the leading trends in the results are indicated, and the reasons for the answers are explained. The data obtained is compared with the hypotheses and it is established which hypotheses were confirmed and which were not confirmed.
At the final stage, the research results are documented - in the form of reports, appendices and analytical reports. The report includes a rationale for the relevance of the study and its characteristics (goals, objectives, sample population, etc.), analysis of empirical material, theoretical conclusions and practical recommendations. Conclusions, proposals and recommendations must be specific, realistic, have the necessary justification in the research materials, and be supported by documentary and statistical data.
Under reliability of sociological information understand the general characteristics of empirical data obtained during sociological research. Reliable they call such information in which, firstly, there are no unaccounted errors, that is, those the magnitude of which the sociologist-researcher is not able to assess; secondly, the number of errors taken into account does not exceed a certain specified value. At the same time, the classification of errors is of great importance for characterizing the reliability of sociological information.
Thus, the absence of theoretical errors is called validity, or validity of sociological information, the absence of random errors - accuracy of information, and the absence of systematic errors is called the correctness of sociological information. Thus, sociological information is considered reliable if it is substantiated (valid), accurate and correct. At the same time, sociological science, to ensure the reliability of sociological information, uses a whole arsenal of methods to improve it, that is, taking into account errors or monitoring the reliability of sociological data.
In conclusion, we note that sociological research is one of the most accurate tools for measuring and analyzing social phenomena, although despite the significance of the results, they cannot be absolute. Along with other methods of cognition, sociological research expands our ability to understand society and increases the efficiency of practical activities.
LITERATURE
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2. Kapitonov E.A. Sociology of the twentieth century. History and technology. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1996. - 512 p.
3. Lukashevich M.P., Tulenkov M.V. Sociology. Basic course. - K.: Karavela, 2005. - 312 p.
4. Osipov G.V. Theory and practice of sociological research. - M., 1989. - 463 p.
5. Rudenko R.I. Workshop on sociology. - M., 1999.
6. Sociology: Terms, concepts, personalities. Chief dictionary-dovidnik/For zag. Ed. V.M.Pichi. - K., Lviv, 2002.
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GLOSSARY
Sociological research - a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational procedures interconnected by a single goal: to obtain objective, reliable data about the phenomenon being studied.
Intelligence research - preliminary research conducted with the aim of obtaining primary information about the phenomenon or process being studied, checking and clarifying all elements of the main study and making the necessary adjustments to them.
Descriptive research - aims to determine the structure, form and nature of the phenomenon or process being studied, which allows us to form a relatively holistic idea of it.
Analytical research - The most profound and large-scale type of research consists not only in describing the structural elements of the phenomenon or process being studied, but also in identifying the reasons underlying it.
Sociological research program - a document containing methodological, methodological, organizational and technical justification for sociological research.
Methodology of sociological research - a set of operations, techniques, procedures for establishing social facts, their processing and analysis .
Purpose of the study- the final result that the researcher intends to obtain after completion of the work.
Research objectives- a range of problems that need to be analyzed in order to answer the main research question.
Interpretation of concepts- theoretical clarification of basic (initial) concepts.
Operationalization of concepts- a set of operations with the help of which the initial concepts used in sociological research are decomposed into components (indicators) that can collectively describe their content.
Hypothesis- a reasonable scientific assumption put forward to explain a phenomenon and requiring verification.
Population- this is the entire set of survey units that are relevant to a given problem.
Sample population- part of the elements of the general population , selected using special methods and reflecting the characteristics of the population based on its representation (representation).
Representativeness- the property of a sample to reflect the characteristics of the population being studied.
Sampling bias is the deviation of the sample structure from the actual structure of the population.
Tools- this is a set of specially developed documents of a methodological nature, adapted to sociological methods, with the help of which the collection of sociological data is ensured.
Document analysis method is a method of data collection that involves obtaining and using information recorded in handwritten or printed texts, on magnetic tape, film and other media.
Survey- a question-and-answer method of collecting sociological data, in which the source of information is the verbal message of people.
Questionnaire- a written request to respondents with a questionnaire (questionnaire) containing a set of questions ordered in a certain way.
Interview- this is a conversation conducted on a predetermined topic, which is disclosed in a specially prepared questionnaire.
Sociometry- a method proposed by J. Moreno to describe the system of interpersonal relationships in small groups.
Observation is a method of collecting primary data through the perception and recording of events, behavior of people and groups related to the object being studied and significant from the point of view of the purpose of the study.
Social experiment- this is a method of obtaining new knowledge about the cause-and-effect relationships between indicators of the functioning, activity, behavior of a social object and the factors influencing it, which can be controlled in order to improve this social reality.
Reliability of sociological information - This is a general characteristic of empirical data obtained during a sociological study. Information is considered reliable if it is reasonable (valid), accurate and correct.
TESTS
1. Applied sociology is:
A. Macrosociological theory of society, revealing universal patterns and principles of a given field of knowledge.
B. A set of theoretical models, methodological principles, research methods and procedures, as well as social technologies, specific programs and recommendations.
B. Social engineering.
2. Arrange the types of sociological research known to you in order in accordance with the parameters of the scale and complexity of the problems being solved:
1. ____________________________________
2. ____________________________________
3. ____________________________________
The left column lists the main stages of sociological research, the right column lists the content of these stages (in no particular order). It is necessary to determine the correct content for each stage of the study.
4. Indicate (underline) the most common method of sociological research:
A. Document analysis.
