• Interior
• Windows
• Walls
• Projects
• Buildings

Cross analysis as a method of sociological research. Levels of sociological knowledge. Types of samples in research

Submitting your good work to the knowledge base is easy. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Similar documents

Sociology is a differentiated, structured system of knowledge. Types of special sociological theories. Levels of industrial sociological theory. Types of applied sociological research. Characteristics of methods, types of sociological research.

abstract, added 11/27/2010


Sociological research, concept, varieties and characteristics. Questioning its essence and methods of conducting. Types of questions, their features. Methodology for conducting surveys, sample research and its implementation. Interviews and observation, their essence.

abstract, added 01/29/2009


Methodological problems of sociological research. Functions of sociology. Development of a sociological research program. Generalization and analysis of data obtained during its implementation. Description and Application different methods and methods in sociology.

tutorial, added 05/14/2012


Review of methods for conducting empirical research on socio-economic and political processes. Features of document analysis as a method of conducting sociological research. Specifics of the methodology of mass survey, experiment and observation.

course work, added 01/31/2014


Classification of methods and techniques of empirical sociological research. Methods for collecting primary information. Questioning as a type of survey. Types of interviews, observations, document analysis. Non-sociological methods used in sociological research.

practical work, added 08/10/2009


Study of methods of collecting information and review of sociological research, sociological data and publications using the example of the production of outdoor, TV and Internet advertising. Media preferences of Russians and their attitude towards advertising. The effectiveness of advertising in the subway.

test, added 04/20/2012


Characteristics of sociological research methods (content analysis, survey methods, sociological observation, case study, sociological experiment). Description of a sociological telephone survey to identify the need for the company's services.

course work, added 11/12/2014


The concept and essence of questionnaires, requirements for their conduct and classification of questions. Analysis of the problem of reliability of the information received. Types, principles and rules of conducting interviews. Basic methods of analysis and classification of documents in sociology.

Depending on the stage of sociological research, sociology distinguishes methods for formulating problems and hypotheses, collecting, processing information and analyzing data.

Methods for formulating problems and hypotheses. A problem or problematic situation is the starting point of any sociological research. In the very general view A problem is understood as a situation in which the researcher knows the goals and actions of individuals aimed at achieving certain needs, but does not have information about the techniques and ways of implementing these actions to satisfy needs and achieve goals.

When formulating problems sociological research requires:

• 1) clearly distinguish between the unknown and the known in the area under study;
• 2) separate from each other what is essential and what is not essential in relation to the general problem;
• 3) divide the general problem into elements (particular problems) and order them by priority.

A sociologist must be able to translate a problematic situation into a formulation of the problem that he has to study. To do this, he must perform the following theoretical actions:

1) to state the real existence of this problem, for which he needs to find out whether there are

indicators that quantitatively or qualitatively characterize this problem;

statistical evidence demonstrating the significance and dynamics of these indicators;

reliable information about these indicators.

• 2) identify significant elements of this problem and make sure that they fall within the subject area of ​​sociology, and not economics, management, etc.;
• 3) highlight the known (from one’s own experience, literary sources) elements of a problem situation and ways to successfully resolve them in order to consider them as an information base for studying the remaining elements;
• 4) determine the main and secondary elements of the problem situation to determine the main direction of the research search;
• 5) analyze existing solutions to similar problems, referring to the literature, the results of expert surveys of specialist scientists or experienced practitioners.

Methods for collecting sociological information. These methods will be discussed in detail in Section 3, but here we will limit ourselves to a brief listing of them.

In sociology, there are three main classes of methods for collecting primary empirical information: observation, document analysis and a group of survey methods. Some of the modifications have already acquired the status of independent methods (for example, interviews or questionnaires).

V.A. Yadov notes that experimental methods and psychological tests occupy a special place in the range of methods for collecting primary data. Their peculiarity lies in the fact that they involve both the registration of facts and strictly fixed methods of processing them.

Information processing methods. V.I. Dobrenkov and A.I. Kravchenko note that compilation of the so-called dictionary of variables can be considered useful work prior to data processing. A variable dictionary is a table that summarizes the variables of a given study, indicating all possible values, which each of them can accept, with the corresponding codes, as well as the numbers of the positions that this variable occupies in the database matrix. In table 1 you can see an example of such a dictionary of variables.

The actual processing of sociological information is the mathematical and statistical transformation of data, which

Table 1

A Dictionary of Variables for Research on Wealth Beliefs

variable	Variable	Options values
	Identification of oneself and one's family with the category of rich people	0 - no answer, definitely yes, in principle yes, perhaps no, definitely no, find it difficult to answer
	Settling on achieving wealth as a goal	0 - no answer, definitely, probably yes, if it works out, then I don’t mind, they don’t need it, don’t know, haven’t thought about it
	Parties offering a reliable path to prosperity	0 - no answer, Agrarian Party of Russia, Communist Party of the Russian Federation, LDPR, Our Home Russia, New Power, Fatherland, Just Cause, Young Russia, Union of Justice and Labor, Labor Russia, Honor and Motherland, Apple, others, none
		0 - no answer, male, female

makes them compact, suitable for analysis and interpretation. The following operations can be performed with sociological data:

• 1) prepare them for processing; encrypt, encode, etc.;
• 2) process (manually or using a computer); tabulate, calculate multidimensional distributions of features, classify, etc.;
• 3) analyze;
• 4) interpret.

Processing large areas Information is mainly collected using specialized computer software packages such as SAS (Statistical Analysis of Systems Package) and SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science Research). The first is most often used in the field of professional statistics, the second in the field of humanities.

The development of the first version of SPSS began in the United States back in the 1960s, and since then it has been constantly modified. The package has a modular structure, in which each module is designed to implement a function or a specific data conversion method.

The basic package includes modules that allow you to obtain linear distributions and contingency tables, statistical correlation coefficients and other statistical characteristics of series and distribution tables.

SPSS also includes all methods of multivariate statistics - loglinear, correlation, factor and cluster analysis.

Together with the SAS package, SPSS is part of the standard computer software for modern practicing sociologists.

Data analysis methods. Data are the facts collected during empirical research. These are responses from respondents, expert assessments, observation results, etc. Empirical data arise only at a certain stage - after the field survey, they are contained in completed questionnaires, observation protocols, questionnaires, interview forms.

V.I. Dobrenkov and A.I. Kravchenko describe several different meanings of the concept of “data analysis” in sociology:

• 1) a set of actions performed in the process of studying the obtained empirical data in order to form an idea of ​​​​the characteristics of the phenomenon being studied;
• 2) the process of studying statistical data using certain techniques, mathematical methods and models in order to present them more conveniently and clearly, which allows for the most reasonable interpretation of the phenomenon being studied;
• 3) a concept identical to applied statistics;
• 4) such procedures for “collapsing” information that do not allow a formal algorithmic approach.
• 1. Analysis of one-dimensional (linear) distributions.

When measuring one variable, the so-called descriptive statistics. The tables corresponding to this analysis are called linear, or one-dimensional distributions.

Usually for a general description the most characteristic features observed phenomena, two main types of analysis are used:

• 1) measurement central tendency(i.e. identifying which of the variable values ​​occur most often in linear distributions, and therefore determine the general or central pattern);
• 2) scatter measurement or variances(it shows how tightly or loosely all recorded values ​​of a given variable are distributed around the most common, average or central value).

When processing empirical data and analyzing the results obtained, it is important to take into account shkayau, with the help of which a measurement was made or another variable. In sociology, the following types of scales are usually used: nominal, rank, interval, proportional. All these scales were developed and introduced into scientific use by the American researcher S. Stevens. More details about the scales will be discussed in section 2.

2. Analysis of two-dimensional distributions.

One of the important tasks of any data analysis is to test the hypotheses formulated in the research program. A hypothesis usually states that there is a relationship between two or more variables. To identify the presence (or absence) of such connections, it is necessary to find an answer to five main questions:

• 1. Is there the relationship between the independent and dependent variables indicated in the hypothesis?
• 2. What is it like direction this connection?
• 3. To what extent strong connection?
• 4. Is the connection statistically significant?
• 5. Is the connection Caussy?

Suppose we formulate a hypothesis: “the older the voters, the more likely they are to take part in the elections.” When surveying, we ask a direct question with suggested answer options: “Did you take part in the last election of the head of city government”?

• 1 - yes;
• 2 - no;
• 3 - I don’t remember.

When processing survey data to test a hypothesis, it is necessary to compare the values ​​of the independent variable (age) with the corresponding values ​​of the dependent variable (participation or non-participation in elections). For the purpose of such comparison, after appropriate data processing (manually or using the SPSS computer package), we compile a table (Table 2).

Such a table is called a “crosstab”, and the process of creating it is called “crosstabulation”. This is one of the main methods of analysis used to see how variables relate to each other.

Participation in elections of voters of different ages

Age, city
	no answer			don't remember
Percentage by line
Column Percentage
Percentage by line
Column Percentage
Percentage by line
Column Percentage
Percentage by line
Column Percentage
Percentage by line
Column Percentage
Percentage by line
Column Percentage
Percentage by line
Column Percentage

According to V.A. Yadov, there are two classes of data analysis procedures:

• 1) descriptive procedures (grouping, classification, typology);
• 2) analytical and experimental procedures (their goal is to search for relationships between variables and their determination).

Simple grouping- This is the ordering of data according to one characteristic. The facts are systematized in accordance with the descriptive hypothesis of the study, taking into account the leading feature of the group. Depending on the hypotheses, the sample can be grouped by gender, age, occupation, education, etc.

V.I. Dobrenkov and A.I. Kravchenko clarify that the method factions“lies in the fact that the population being surveyed is divided into homogeneous groups (i.e., individual units that have a common characteristic for all). Groupings based on quantitative or qualitative characteristics have their own specific characteristics. When grouping by quantitative characteristics (age, work experience, income), the entire range of changes in the variable is divided into certain intervals, followed by counting the number of units included in each of them. When grouping according to qualitative characteristics, it should be possible to assign each unit of analysis to one of the selected gradations. Moreover, this must be done in an unambiguous way so that the total number of units of analysis assigned to all gradations would be exactly equal to the total size of the population being studied (therefore, along with the answer options “I don’t know”, “I don’t know”, the dictionary of variables always provides “no answer” option, usually coded zero)".

All subsequent analysis is based on the study of grouped data.

The number of group members is called frequency, or group size, and the ratio of this number to total number cases - relative frequency.

Cross grouping- this is the linking of facts, previously ordered according to two characteristics, in order to 1) discover their interdependence; 2) carry out mutual monitoring of indicators (for example, answers to the main and control questions).

The tasks of cross-grouping include 1) searching for stable connections that influence the structural properties of the phenomenon or process being studied; 2) search for trends and dynamics of the process.

There is theoretical and empirical typology: the first leads to an explanation of the facts, phenomena or processes being studied, and the second allows only a description of the data obtained and their interpretation.

Typology is also understood as“generalization of the characteristics of social phenomena based on an ideal theoretical model and according to theoretically based criteria. As an example of typologization, we could cite... a study devoted to identifying the substantive aspect of the political stratification of Russian society in the 1990s. In this study, we identified such types of political orientation as “democrats”, “Westerners”, “pragmatists”, “communists”, “national patriots” and “totalitarians” [ibid].

Finding relationships between variables. Cross grouping by two or more characteristics is a method for detecting possible relationships of interaction between variables.

The main problem when analyzing data from bivariate distributions is: should we take row or column data as 100%? This depends on the nature of the sample (whether it is representative or not) and the logic of the analysis (“from causes to effect” and “from effect to causes”).

So, for example, we have an initial two-dimensional distribution of respondents according to the content of their work and the degree of participation in the rationalization of production (Table 3).

This table presents data that a thousand people working at the plant were distributed depending on the fact of participation or non-participation in rationalization activities.

Initial cross-clustering of data: pile content and participation in rationalization (N = 1000)

Let us carry out the analysis according to the logic “from causes to effects.” In this case, the content of labor may be a prerequisite for participation in rationalization, while rationalization cannot be the cause of this or that type of labor. With this approach, we take the row data as 100% (Table 4).

Table 4

Participation in rationalization as a consequence of the content of workers’ labor

Based on the data of this two-dimensional distribution, we can conclude that the most active innovators are engineering and technical workers, and the least active are office workers. The nature of the work of engineering and technical workers contributes to participation in rationalization work to a greater extent than the nature of the work of workers or employees of a given enterprise.

Now we will carry out the analysis according to the logic “from consequences to causes” and take the data for the column as 100% (Table 5).

Contribution of workers of different labor contents to rationalization

The data presented in this table allow us to draw a conclusion about the contribution of each category of workers to the rationalization movement, and not a conclusion about their relative rationalization activity. Therefore, from table. 5 we see that the contribution of workers to innovation is the greatest, for the simple reason that they predominate among the employees of this enterprise. Based on these data, we cannot judge the relative activity of workers in comparison with other groups.

So, from these examples it is clear that reading the data “by row” or “by column” implies conclusions that are different in content.

Also, to search for relationships between variables, the factor analysis method is used. With its help, the structural relationships of many variables are revealed. First, pairwise correlations of all variables are established, and then among them, those that are most closely interconnected within their group and weakly connected with other groups (the so-called “nodes” of connections or factors) are identified.

One of important stages sociological research is actually the collection of sociological information. It is at this stage that new knowledge is acquired, the subsequent generalization of which allows us to better understand and explain the real world, as well as predict the development of events in the future. For these purposes, sociology uses various types and methods for collecting social information, the use of which directly depends on the goals, objectives of the study, conditions, time and place of its conduct.

Sociological research methodology is a system of operations, procedures and techniques for establishing social factors, their systematization and analysis tools. Methodological tools include methods (methods) for collecting primary data, rules for conducting sample research, methods for constructing social indicators and other procedures.

One type of research is piloting, i.e. exploratory or pilot study. This is the simplest type of sociological research, since it solves problems limited in content and covers small populations being surveyed. The purpose of a pilot study can be, firstly, a preliminary collection of information to obtain additional knowledge about the subject and object of research, to clarify and adjust hypotheses and tasks, and secondly, a procedure for checking the tools for collecting primary information for its correctness, preceding a mass study.

Descriptive sociological research is a more complex type of sociological research, which allows us to form a relatively holistic picture of the phenomenon being studied and its structural elements. Descriptive research is used in cases where the object of study is a relatively large community of people characterized by different characteristics.

Analytical sociological research is the most in-depth study, allowing not only to describe a phenomenon, but also to give a causal explanation of its functioning. If a descriptive study establishes whether there is a relationship between the characteristics of the phenomenon being studied, then an analytical study determines whether the discovered relationship is causal in nature.

A point (or one-time) study provides information about the state and quantitative characteristics of a phenomenon or process at the time of its study.

Point studies repeated at certain intervals are called repeat studies. A special type of repeated research is panel research, which involves repeated, regular research of the same objects.

The most common method of collecting sociological information is a survey, which allows one to collect the necessary, high-quality, diverse information over a large area within a short time. A survey is a method of data collection in which a sociologist directly or indirectly asks questions to a certain population of people (respondents). The survey method is used in a number of cases: 1) when the problem being studied is insufficiently provided with documentary sources of information or when such sources are absent altogether; 2) when the subject of the study or its individual characteristics are not available for observation; 3) when the subject of study are elements of social or individual consciousness: needs, interests, motivations, moods, values, beliefs of people, etc.; 4) as a control (additional) method to expand the possibilities of describing and analyzing the characteristics being studied and to double-check data obtained by other methods.

According to the forms and conditions of communication between the sociologist and the respondent, written surveys (questionnaires) and oral surveys (interviews) are distinguished, which are carried out at the place of residence, at the place of work, in target audiences. The survey can be face-to-face (personal) and correspondence (submitting a questionnaire through a newspaper, television, mail, telephone), as well as group and individual.

Most common in practice applied sociology type of survey is a questionnaire. This technique allows you to collect information about social facts and social activities with virtually no restrictions, due to the fact that the survey is anonymous in nature, and communication between the surveyor and the respondent is carried out through an intermediary - the questionnaire. That is, the respondent fills out the questionnaire himself, and can do this either in the presence of the questionnaire or without him.

The results of the survey largely depend on how well the questionnaire is compiled (for an example of a questionnaire, see Appendix 1). As the main tool for collecting information, the questionnaire should consist of three parts: introductory, main and final. In the introductory part of the questionnaire, it is necessary to reflect the following information: who is conducting the research, what are its goals, what is the methodology for filling out the questionnaire, as well as an indication of the anonymity of the questionnaire.

The main part of the questionnaire contains the questions themselves. All questions used in questionnaires can be classified according to content and form. The first group (in terms of content) includes questions about the facts of consciousness and the facts of behavior. Questions about the facts of consciousness reveal the opinions, wishes, expectations, and plans of respondents. Questions about facts of behavior are aimed at identifying the motivation of actions and actions of large social groups of people. In terms of form, survey questions can be open (i.e., not containing answer prompts), closed (containing a full set of answer options) and semi-closed (containing a set of answer options, as well as the possibility of a free answer), direct and indirect.

The final section of the questionnaire should contain questions about the personality of the respondent, which form a kind of “passport” of the questionnaire, i.e. identify the social characteristics of the respondent (gender, age, nationality, occupation, education, etc.).

A fairly common method of sociological research is interviews. When interviewing, contact between the interviewer and the respondent is carried out directly, “face to face.” In this case, the interviewer himself asks questions, directs the conversation with each individual respondent, and records the answers received. This is a more time-consuming survey method compared to questionnaires, which also has a number of problems. In particular, the limitation of the scope of application due to the impossibility of maintaining anonymity, the possibility of the interviewer influencing the quality and content of answers (“interviewer effect”). Interviewing is used, as a rule, for the purposes of a trial (pilot) study, to study public opinion on a particular issue, or to interview experts. The interview can be conducted at the place of work, at the place of residence, or by telephone.

Depending on the methodology and technique of conducting, standardized, non-standardized and focused interviews are distinguished. A standardized (formalized) interview is a technique in which communication between the interviewer and the respondent is strictly regulated by pre-developed questionnaires and instructions. The interviewer must adhere to the wording of the questions and their sequence. A focused interview aims to collect opinions and assessments about a specific situation, phenomenon, its causes and consequences. The specificity of this interview is that the respondent gets acquainted with the subject of the conversation in advance and prepares for it by studying the literature recommended to him. The interviewer prepares in advance a list of questions that he can ask in a free sequence, but he must definitely receive an answer to each question. A non-standardized (free) interview is a technique in which only the topic of the conversation is determined in advance, around which a free conversation is conducted between the interviewer and the respondent. The direction, logical structure and sequence of the conversation depends solely on who is conducting the survey and on his ideas about the subject of discussion.

Quite often, sociologists resort to a research method such as observation. Observation is a method of collecting information that directly records events that occur.

Observation as a method is borrowed from the natural sciences and is a way of understanding the world. As a scientific method, it differs from simple everyday observations. Firstly, observation is carried out for a very specific purpose, focused on collecting information necessary for a sociologist, i.e. Before starting an observation, the question “What to observe?” is always resolved. Secondly, observation is always carried out according to a specific plan, i.e. the question “How to observe?” is resolved. Thirdly, observation data must be recorded in a certain order. That is, sociological observation is a directed, systematic, direct auditory and visual perception and registration of social processes, phenomena, situations, facts that are significant from the point of view of the goals and objectives of the study.

Depending on the nature of the observation process, the following types are distinguished: formalized and unformalized, controlled and uncontrolled, included and uninvolved, field and laboratory, random and systematic, structured and unstructured, etc. The choice of the type of observation is determined by the objectives of the study.

A special type of observation is self-observation, in which an individual (the object of observation) records certain aspects of his behavior according to a program proposed by the researcher (for example, through keeping a diary).

The main advantage of this method - the sociologist's direct personal contact with the phenomenon (object) being studied - to a certain extent is a problem of the method, its weak point. Firstly, it is difficult to cover a large number of phenomena, so local events and facts are observed, which may result in errors in the interpretation of people’s actions and the motives of their behavior. Secondly, errors in interpretation can be caused by a subjective assessment of the observed processes and phenomena on the part of the observer himself. Therefore, the collection of primary information by observation must be accompanied by the use of in various ways control, including: observation after observation, repeated observation, etc. An observation is considered reliable if, when repeating the observation with the same object and under the same conditions, a similar result is obtained.

A huge number of tasks facing sociology are associated with the study of processes occurring in small groups. To analyze intragroup (interpersonal) relationships in small groups, a method such as sociometry is used. This technique was proposed in the 30s of the twentieth century by J. Moreno. This study uses a specific type of survey that is closest to psychological testing (often called a sociometric test). The respondents are asked to answer which of the group members they would like to see as their partners in a given situation, and which, on the contrary, they reject. Then, using special techniques, the number of positive and negative choices for each group member in various situations is analyzed. Using the sociometric procedure, one can, firstly, identify the degree of cohesion - disunity in a group; secondly, to determine the positions of each group member from the point of view of sympathy and antipathy, identifying the “leader” and the “outsider”; and, finally, to identify within the group a separate unity, subgroups with their informal leader.

The specificity of a sociometric survey is that it cannot be conducted anonymously, i.e. sociometric questionnaires are personal in nature, which means that the study affects the vital interests of each member of the group. Therefore, this technique requires compliance with a number of ethical requirements, including non-disclosure of research results to group members and participation in the study of all potential respondents.

An experiment is used as a type of in-depth, analytical sociological research and a method of collecting information about factors affecting changes in the state of certain social phenomena and processes, as well as the degree and results of this impact. This method came to sociology from the natural sciences and is aimed at testing hypotheses regarding causal relationships between social phenomena. The general logic of the experiment is to, by selecting a certain experimental group and placing it in an unusual situation (under the influence of a certain factor), to trace the direction, magnitude, and stability of changes in the characteristics of interest to the researcher.

According to the nature of the experimental situation, experiments are divided into field and laboratory. In a field experiment, the object of study is in the natural conditions of its functioning. In a laboratory experiment, the situation, and often the experimental groups, are formed artificially.

According to the logical structure of the proof of hypotheses, a distinction is made between linear and parallel experiments. In a linear experiment, one group is analyzed, which is both control and experimental. In a parallel experiment, two groups participate simultaneously. The characteristics of the first, control, group remain constant throughout the entire period of the experiment, while the characteristics of the second, experimental, group change. Based on the results of the experiment, the characteristics of the groups are compared, and a conclusion is drawn about the magnitude and reasons for the changes that occurred.

According to the nature of the object of study, real and thought experiments differ. A real experiment is characterized by targeted intervention in reality, testing explanatory hypotheses through systematic changes in the conditions of social activity. In a thought experiment, hypotheses are tested not by real phenomena, but by information about them. Both real and thought experiments are carried out, as a rule, not on the general population, but on a model, i.e. on a representative sample.

According to the specifics of the task at hand, scientific and applied experiments differ. Scientific experiments are aimed at obtaining new knowledge about given social phenomena, and applied experiments are aimed at obtaining a practical result (social, economic, etc.).

An experiment is one of the most complex methods of collecting social information. To determine the effectiveness of an experiment, it is necessary to carry it out multiple times, during which the main options for solving a social problem are tested, as well as the purity of the experiment. When conducting an experiment, surveys and observation can be used as additional methods of collecting information.

One of the important methods of collecting social information is document analysis, used to extract sociological information from documentary sources necessary for solving research problems. This method allows you to obtain information about past events, observation of which is no longer possible. A documentary source of information - a document - for a sociologist is everything that in some “visible” way records information. Documents include various written sources (archives, press, reference books, literary works, personal documents), statistical data, audio and video materials.

There are two main methods of document analysis: informal (traditional) and formalized (content analysis). Traditional analysis is based on the perception, understanding, comprehension and interpretation of the content of documents in accordance with the purpose of the study. For example, is the document an original or a copy, if a copy, then how reliable is it, who is the author of the document, for what purposes was it created. Formalized document analysis (content analysis) is designed to obtain information from large arrays of documents that are not accessible to traditional intuitive analysis. The essence of this method is that the document identifies such features (phrases, words) that can be counted and which significantly reflect the content of the document. For example, stable thematic sections of a newspaper that are repeated over a fairly long period of time (the frequency of their occurrence), the size of the newspaper space allocated to them (the frequency of lines) reflect the interest of the readership, as well as the information policy of a given newspaper.

The final stage of empirical sociological research involves processing, analyzing and interpreting data, obtaining empirically based generalizations, conclusions and recommendations. The results of scientific analysis are usually summarized in a scientific report, which contains information about solving the problems posed in the study. The report outlines the sequence of implementation of the research program, analysis of the empirical data obtained, substantiates the conclusions and gives practical recommendations. In addition, the report contains appendices containing digital and graphical indicators, as well as all methodological materials (questionnaires, observation diaries, etc.).

Key concepts of the topic: respondent, pilot study, sociological survey, questionnaire, interviewing, participant observation, non-participant observation, sociometry, experiment, content analysis.




Introduction.

1. Sociological research and its types.

2. General characteristics sociological research programs.

3. Research problems.

4. Method of sociological observation

5. Documents in sociology.

6. Methods of sociological survey

7. Methods of analysis and processing of sociological information.

Conclusion.

Literature.




Introduction.

In the structure of sociological knowledge, three interrelated levels are most often distinguished: 1) general sociological theory; 2) special sociological theories (or middle-level theories); 3) sociological research, also called private, empirical, applied or specifically sociological. All three levels complement each other, which makes it possible to obtain scientifically based results by studying certain social objects, phenomena and processes.

Social life constantly poses many questions to a person, which can only be answered with the help of scientific research, in particular sociological research. However, not every study in the field of sociology is actually sociological. It is important to distinguish them because today we often encounter an arbitrary interpretation of such research, when almost any concrete social development of a particular social science problem (especially if survey methods are used) is wrongfully called sociological research. The latter, according to the Russian sociologist E. Tadevosyan, should be based on the use of specific scientific methods, techniques and procedures specific to sociology in the study of social facts and empirical material. At the same time, it is inappropriate to reduce sociological research only to the collection of primary empirical data, to a sociological survey, since this is just one of the stages, albeit a very important one, of sociological research.

In a broad sense, sociological research is a specific type of systematic cognitive activity aimed at studying social objects, relationships and processes in order to obtain new information and identify patterns of social life based on theories, methods and procedures adopted in sociology.

In a narrower sense, sociological research is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological, organizational and technical procedures, subordinated to a single goal: to obtain accurate and objective data about the social object, phenomenon or process being studied.

In other words, sociological research is a specific type of social (social science) research (their “core”), which considers society as an integral sociocultural system and relies on special methods and techniques for collecting, processing and analyzing primary information that are accepted in sociology.

Moreover, any sociological study involves several stages. The first, or stage of preparation, consists of thinking about the goals, drawing up a program and plan, determining the means and timing of the research, as well as choosing methods for analyzing and processing sociological information. The second stage involves the collection of primary sociological information - collected non-generalized information in various forms (records from researchers, extracts from documents, individual responses from respondents, etc.). The third stage consists of preparing the information collected during sociological research (questionnaire survey, interviews, observation, content analysis and other methods) for processing, drawing up a processing program and actually processing the received information on a computer. And finally, the fourth or final stage is the analysis of the processed information, the preparation of a scientific report on the results of the study, as well as the formulation of conclusions and the development of recommendations and proposals for the customer or other management entity that initiated the sociological research.

1. Sociological research and its types.



As you know, typology is a scientific method, the basis of which is the division of objects, phenomena or processes and their grouping according to the commonality of some characteristics. The need to determine the types of sociological research is dictated, first of all, by the fact that already at the very beginning of its implementation, questions arise before the sociologist regarding the identification of the general, special or unique in the study of social objects, phenomena or processes of social life. If he manages to reasonably identify his research with existing species, then this allows him to more effectively use the experience already accumulated by other researchers when organizing and conducting specific sociological research.

Sociological research is divided on many grounds, and therefore various typologies and classifications can be proposed. Thus, according to the nature of the sociological knowledge obtained, theoretical and empirical (specific) research is distinguished. For theoretical sociological research, a deep generalization of the accumulated factual material in the field is crucial. social life. The focus of empirical research is the accumulation and collection of factual material in this area (based on direct observation, survey, document analysis, statistical data and other methods of obtaining information) and its primary processing, including the initial level of generalization. However, it would be a mistake to separate, let alone contrast, the empirical and the theoretical in sociological research. These are two sides of a holistic study of social phenomena, constantly interacting, complementing each other and mutually enriching.

Depending on whether they are carried out once or repeatedly, sociological research is divided into one-time and repeated. The first allow you to get an idea of ​​the state, position, statics of any social object, phenomenon or process at a given moment. The latter are used to identify dynamics and changes in their development. The number of repeated sociological studies and the time intervals between them are determined by their goals and content. A type of repeated sociological research is a panel study, when the same social object is studied according to an identical program and methodology after a certain period of time, thanks to which it becomes possible to establish trends in its development. The most obvious example of a panel sociological study is periodic population censuses.

Based on the nature of the goals and objectives set, as well as the breadth and depth of the analysis of a social phenomenon or process, sociological research is divided into reconnaissance, descriptive and analytical.

Reconnaissance (or pilot, sounding) research is the simplest; it can be used to solve very limited problems. In essence, this is a “testing” of tools, i.e., methodological documents: questionnaires, interview forms, questionnaires, observation cards or document study cards. The program for such research, like the tools itself, is simplified. The populations surveyed are relatively small: from 20 to 100 people. Intelligence research, as a rule, precedes an in-depth study of a particular problem. During its implementation, goals and objectives, hypotheses and subject areas, questions and their formulation are clarified. It is especially important to conduct such research when the problem has not been sufficiently studied or is being raised for the first time. With the help of intelligence research, operational sociological information is obtained about the social object, phenomenon or process being studied.

Descriptive research is a more complex sociological analysis. With its help, empirical information is obtained that gives a relatively holistic picture of the social object, phenomenon or process being studied. Typically, this research is carried out when the object of analysis is a relatively large population that differs various properties and characteristics (for example, labor collective a large enterprise where people of different professions, gender, age, having different work experience, etc. work). Isolation in the structure of the object of study in relation to homogeneous groups(for example, by level of education, age, profession) allows you to evaluate and compare characteristics of interest to a sociologist and identify the presence or absence of connections between them. A descriptive study may use one or more methods to collect empirical data. The combination of various methods increases the reliability and completeness of sociological information, allows you to draw deeper conclusions and more substantiated recommendations.

Analytical research is the most complex sociological analysis, which allows not only to describe the elements of the object, phenomenon or process being studied, but also to identify their causes. The search for cause-and-effect relationships is the main purpose of this study. If descriptive research establishes only a connection between the characteristics of the phenomenon being studied, then analytical research determines whether this connection is causal in nature, and what is the main reason that determines this or that social phenomenon. Using analytical research, the totality of factors that determine this phenomenon is studied. They are usually classified as basic and non-basic, permanent and temporary, controlled and uncontrolled, etc. Analytical research is impossible without a detailed program and clearly polished tools. Typically, such research is carried out after exploratory and descriptive research, during which information is collected that gives a preliminary idea of ​​certain elements of the social object, phenomenon or process being studied. Analytical research is most often complex in nature. In terms of the methods used, it is much more diverse than exploratory and descriptive.

Other approaches to identifying the typology of sociological research are described in the specialized sociological literature. Particularly noteworthy is the approach of the Russian sociologist V. Yadov, who identifies the following types of sociological research: focused on various aspects of social planning and management of social processes, theoretical and applied, the practical significance of which is revealed through a system of additional (engineering) developments; theoretical and methodological, operational in enterprises and institutions, with the help of which they analyze local problems in order to find optimal ways to resolve them.

Some researchers distinguish sociological research by spheres of public life, for example, into socio-economic, socio-political, socio-pedagogical, socio-psychological, etc. Of particular interest is the approach of the Ukrainian sociologist G. Shchekin, who classifies empirical and applied sociological research as follows pilot tests aimed at testing the effectiveness of the instruments; field, focused on studying an object in normal natural conditions, in everyday situations; With feedback, the purpose of which is to attract the team to participate in solving practical problems facing it; panel, which involves repeated study of one object at certain intervals; longitudinal as a type of repeated, when long-term periodic observation of certain individuals or social objects is carried out; comparative, when the main technique is to compare information about various social subsystems, periods of historical development, and research by different authors; interdisciplinary, involving cooperation between representatives of various scientific disciplines in solving a complex problem.

Russian sociologists M. Gorshkov and F. Sheregi tried to develop the main criterion for classifying sociological research, taking as a basis their logical structure and orientation to practice. They distinguish the following sociological studies: intelligence, operational, descriptive, analytical, experimental. These sociologists reduce all surveys to questionnaires and interviews. Depending on the source of primary sociological information, they divide surveys into mass and specialized, also separately highlighting sociological observations, document analysis, point and panel studies.

The noted classifications undoubtedly have a certain value for the practice of conducting sociological research. However, their disadvantages are also quite pronounced. Thus, they are often carried out by mixing various bases and classification criteria. But their main drawback is that they do not rely on all components of the identified system of the cognitive process, and therefore often reflect only certain essential aspects of research, without covering all types of sociological research

The classifications of social objects accepted in sociology differ, as a rule, in the depth of penetration into their essence. Conventionally, classifications of social objects are divided into essential and non-essential. Essential ones are based on a conceptual understanding of the nature of the classified objects. As analysis shows, there are relatively few such classifications, but all of them are firmly entrenched in sociological science. Non-entity classifications are based on objects, deep penetration the essence of which is quite problematic. Consequently, these classifications are not without a certain superficiality, which is explained by an insufficient level of understanding of the classified objects and penetration into their essence.

As the analysis shows, the classification of sociological research can be based on the concept of the structure of sociological research. With this approach, the basis for the classification of sociological research is the structural elements of social cognition: the subject of the study, its method, the type of subject of the study, the conditions and prerequisites of the study, the knowledge obtained. Each of these grounds, in turn, is divided into a number of sub-foundations, etc. The proposed essential classification of types of sociological research is given in Table 1.

Table 1.

Essential classification of sociological research

Basis of classification	Types of sociological research
On the subject of research: application area degree of representation sides of the object severity object dynamics	Socio-economic, actually sociological, socio-political, socio-pedagogical, etc. Complex, not complex Spot, repeat, panel, monitoring
According to the research method: depth and complexity dominance method used type and level of research bodily activities	Reconnaissance (aerobatic or sounding), descriptive, analytical Observation, document analysis, survey (questionnaire, interviews, testing, examination), experimental research Theoretical, empirical, empirical-theoretical, fundamental, applied
By subject type: structure subject number of goals, put forward by the subject	single-purpose
According to the conditions and prerequisites of the study: type of position conditions a priori security information	Field, laboratory Information-secured and non-secured
Based on the knowledge gained: the novelty of the knowledge gained type of knowledge gained roles in science knowledge applications	Innovative, compilation Empirical, empirical-theoretical, theoretical Recording facts, testing hypotheses, generalizing, analytical, synthesizing, prognostic, retrospective, etc. Theoretical, applied, theoretical and applied
According to the scale of the research object	Continuous, selective, local, regional, sectoral, national, international.

The presented essential classification can be used to characterize any sociological study. It should be borne in mind that its individual bases are practically independent of each other. And in order to describe a particular study, you only need to highlight the corresponding elements for each basis. For example, sociological research can be characterized as socio-economic, comprehensive, targeted, intelligence, analytical, collective, field, information-supported, innovative, applied, generalizing, etc.

2. General characteristics of the sociological research program



As already noted, sociological research is a complex process of cognitive activity, during which the sociologist (the subject of cognition) consistently makes the transition from one qualitative stages of cognition to others, from a lack of understanding of the essence of the social object under study to obtaining the necessary and reliable knowledge about it. Whatever the specifics of a particular sociological study, it always goes through certain stages. In sociology, as a rule, there are four main stages of sociological research, the characteristics of which are presented in Table 2. The analysis shows that any sociological research begins with the development of its program, which can be considered in two aspects. On the one hand, it represents the main document of scientific research, by which one can judge the degree of scientific validity of a particular sociological study. On the other hand, the program is a specific methodological model of research, which sets out methodological principles, the purpose and objectives of the study, as well as ways to achieve them. In addition, since sociological research actually begins with the development of a program, it represents the result of its initial stage.

Thus, in the process of developing a sociological research program, an epistemological research model is created, and issues of its methodology, techniques and techniques are also resolved. Any sociological research program must satisfy the following basic requirements: theoretical and methodological soundness; structural completeness, i.e. the presence in it of all structural elements; the logic and sequence of its parts and fragments; flexibility (it should not constrain the creative possibilities of the sociologist); clarity, clarity and understandability even for non-specialists.

Table 2

Characteristics of the main stages of sociological research

Research stage		Result
Programming	Development of issues of methodology, methods and techniques of sociological research	Sociological Research Program
Informational	Application of methods and techniques to obtain an array of reliable and representative sociological information	Empirical sociological information
Analytical	Analysis of sociological information, its generalization, theorization, description and explanation of facts, substantiation of trends and patterns, identification of correlation and cause-and-effect relationships	Description and explanation of the social object (phenomenon or process) being studied
Practical		Model of practical transformation of the studied social object (phenomenon or process)

Based on the fact that the program plays a central role in sociological research, it is important to formulate functions that indicate its purpose and reveal its main content.

1. The methodological function lies in the fact that, from the existing variety of conceptual approaches and aspects of the vision of the object, it determines the methodology that the sociologist will apply.

2. The methodological function involves specifying and justifying research methods, that is, obtaining sociological information, as well as its analysis and processing.

3. The epistemological function ensures a reduction in the level of uncertainty in the understanding of the object under study after the development of the program compared to its understanding before its development.

4. The modeling function consists of presenting the object as a special model of sociological research, its main aspects, stages and procedures.

5. The programming function consists of developing a program as such, which is a specific model of the research process that optimizes and streamlines the activities of a sociologist-researcher.

6. The normative function indicates the presence of a program built in accordance with the established structure, as a fundamental requirement and a sign of the scientific nature of sociological research. The program sets the regulatory requirements of sociological science in relation to a specific study.

7. The organizational function involves the distribution of responsibilities between members of the research team, the division and streamlining of the work of each sociologist, and monitoring the progress of the research process.

8. The heuristic function ensures the search and acquisition of new knowledge, the process of penetration into the essence of the object being studied, the discovery of deep layers, as well as the transition from ignorance to knowledge, from misconception to truth.

The absence or incomplete development of a program distinguishes speculative and dishonest research. Therefore, when conducting an examination of the quality of sociological research, special attention is paid to checking the scientific validity of its program. Inattention to the construction of a correct and scientifically complete program significantly affects the quality of the research conducted, significantly narrows the cognitive capabilities of the sociologist, and also reduces the relevance and social significance of sociological research and its results

3. Research problems



The starting point of any research, including sociological research, is a problematic situation that develops in real life. As a rule, it contains the most acute contradiction between any elements of the social process. For example, when studying the professional orientation of students, one of the most important contradictions characterizing it is the contradiction between the professional life plans of students and the possibility of their implementation in practice. At the same time, a student’s professional aspirations may be so unrealistic or incommensurate with his abilities and the capabilities of society that they will certainly never be realized. In this case, the school graduate either fails or acquires a profession that is contraindicated for him, which sooner or later leads him to disappointment, as well as significant losses for society as a whole, and for this individual in particular. Social costs also turn out to be unreasonably large both for graduates acquiring a profession for which they are unsuitable and for training them in new professions. The costs to society from irrational professional transfers of workers are enormous, but it is even more difficult to measure individual losses due to unsuccessful professional choice. The inferiority complexes that arise in this regard and the accompanying suicidal states and difficulties in personal self-realization sharply reduce the quality of life.

This is a typical problem situation faced by a sociologist. After its analysis and argumentation of social significance, the researcher transfers the practical aspect of the problem situation to the rank of a cognitive problem, proves its insufficient research and validity, as well as the need for study, i.e., satisfying the need for knowledge by resolving this contradiction of social reality.

However, not every sociological study is problematic. The fact is that the formulation of the problem requires a deep analysis of social life, the presence of certain knowledge about society, about certain aspects of it, as well as the corresponding erudition of a sociologist. Therefore, quite often one encounters either unproblematic research or research in which the problem is formulated intuitively. The practice of sociological research proves a simple truth: it is better to stick to a problem than to conduct research unproblematically. It is important that the problem is not already solved or false, and for this it requires serious examination.

The definition of a problem is preceded by a diagnosis of the problem situation, determination of the qualifications of its scale, severity, as well as the type of trend behind the problem. In addition, it is important to record the speed at which the problem develops. To determine the essence of specific problems for the purpose of studying them, the classification of social problems is of great methodological importance (Table 3).

Table 3

Classification of social problems

From the table 3 it can be seen that, according to their scale, problems are divided into local or micro-social; regional, covering individual regions; national, having a nationwide scope and affecting the national security of the country. According to their severity, problems are classified into imminent ones that will appear in the future, but now require prevention; relevant, i.e. already ripe, and acute, requiring immediate resolution. According to the type of trends in social change, problems are classified as destructive and degradative, which determine negative destructive processes in society; transformational, recording the transformation of society, its transition from one quality to another; innovative, related to various aspects of social innovation. According to the speed of development, problems are divided into passive, that is, developing slowly; active, characterized by dynamism, and superactive, growing extremely quickly.

Thus, table. 3 illustrates the variety of existing social problems. In fact, each specific problem can be differentiated according to each of four indicators, i.e., by social scale, severity, type of trend and speed of its development. In this case, we get 27 types of problems for each of those presented in the table. 3 indicators. For example, according to the “immature” indicator, the problem can be described as follows: local, immature, destructive-degradative, passive; local, immature, destructive-degradative, active, etc. If we imagine all possible options, then their number will be 27*3=81.

The classification of social problems significantly influences the determination of the methodology and tools for their research, as well as the nature of the practical use of the results obtained. A problem represents some unsatisfied need for goods and services, cultural values, activities, personal self-realization, etc. The task of a sociologist is not only to classify the problem, i.e., to understand the type of this need and ways to satisfy it, but also to , in order to formulate it in a form convenient for further analysis. Thus, the spatio-temporal characteristics of the problem, the disclosure of its social content (determination of the communities, institutions, phenomena it covers, etc.) make it possible to correctly determine the object of research. Presenting the problem in the form of a contradiction (between desires and possibilities; various structures, aspects; between social systems and the environment; between their functions and dysfunctions, etc.) creates the conditions for determining the goals and objectives of the study.

In sociological research, the category “problem” performs several important functions: actualization, which gives the research social significance (after all, any sociological research is as relevant as the scale of the problem it is studying); regulation, since as the starting point of research it significantly influences the development of all sections of the research program; methodologization, since the formulation of the problem initially sets the entire study approaches and principles, theories and ideas that guide the sociologist in determining the nature of the problem; pragmatization, which consists in the fact that the correct formulation of the problem ensures the practical effect of the entire study, and also determines the area for the implementation of conclusions and practical recommendations.

4. Method of sociological observation



Observation in sociological research is a method of collecting and the simplest generalization of primary information about the social object being studied through direct perception and direct recording of facts relating to the object being studied and significant from the point of view of the goals of the study. The units of information of this method are recorded acts of verbal or nonverbal (real) behavior of people. Unlike the natural sciences, where observation is considered the main and relatively simple method of collecting data, in sociology it is one of the most complex and time-consuming research methods.

In addition, sociological observation is integrated into almost all methods of sociological science. For example, a sociological survey can be represented as a specific observation of respondents through a questionnaire, and a social experiment organically includes two acts of observation: at the very beginning of the study and at the end of the action of the experimental variables.

Sociological observation is characterized by a number of essential features. Firstly, it must be aimed at socially important areas, that is, at those circumstances, events and facts that are essential for the development of the individual and the team, and in this it must correspond to the social order of society. Secondly, observation should be carried out purposefully, organized and systematized. The need for this is determined by the fact that, on the one hand, observation is a set of relatively simple procedures, and on the other hand, the object of sociological observation is distinguished by a wide variety of properties and there is a danger of “losing” the most significant of them. Thirdly, observation, unlike other sociological methods, is characterized by a certain breadth and depth. The breadth of observation involves recording as many properties of an object as possible, and depth involves highlighting the most significant properties and the most profound and essential processes. Fourthly, the results of observation must be clearly recorded and can be reproduced without much difficulty. Good memory is not enough here; you need to apply procedures for logging, data unification, language coding, etc. Fifthly, observation and processing of its results require special objectivity. It is the specificity of the problem of objectivity in sociological observation that distinguishes it from observation in the natural sciences.

Unlike other sociological methods, sociological observation has two important features. The first is determined by the object of observation, which often has social activity of various directions. All observed people have consciousness, psyche, goals, value orientations, character, emotions, i.e. qualities that can cause unnaturalness of their behavior, reluctance to be observed, desire to look in the best light, etc. Taken together, this significantly reduces the objectivity of information received from the object - real individuals and groups. This bias is especially noticeable when the goals of the sociologist and those being observed are different. The process of observation in this case begins to turn either into a struggle or into the manipulations of a “sociologist-detective” who in every possible way disguises his activities. Similar situations have repeatedly arisen in the practice of sociological research. Thus, in Western countries there are quite a few special works devoted to recommendations regarding the behavior of a “sociologist-spy.” This problem loses relevance if the sociologist takes the position of humanism or expresses the interests of the subjects themselves.

The second feature of the method of sociological observation is that the observer cannot be deprived of purely human traits, including emotionality of perception. If phenomena of a non-social nature may not worry the observer, then social phenomena always cause experiences and empathy, feelings, emotions and a desire to help the subjects, and sometimes “correct” the results of the observation. The point is that the observer himself is part of social life. Between him and the observed there is not only epistemological, but also socio-psychological interaction, which is sometimes quite difficult to overcome.

Thus, the objectivity of sociological research does not consist in excluding personal relationships, but in not replacing them with the criteria of scientific research. The pathos of the sociologist's personal attitude towards the subjects must be inextricably linked with the pathos of a strict scientific and logical approach.



It should be noted that the advantages of the sociological observation method are quite clear and boil down to the following. Firstly, this is the immediacy of perception, which allows you to record specific, natural situations, facts, living fragments of life, rich in details, colors, halftones, etc. Secondly, it is possible to take into account the specific behavior of groups of real people. At present, this problem is practically unsolvable by other sociological methods. Thirdly, observation does not depend on the willingness of the observed persons to speak about themselves, which is typical, for example, of a sociological interview. Here it is necessary to take into account the possibility of “pretending” by the observed, because they know that they are being observed. Fourthly, this is the multidimensionality of this method, which makes it possible to record events and processes in the most complete and comprehensive manner. Greater multidimensionality is characteristic of the most experienced observers.

The disadvantages of the observation method are due, first of all, to the presence of activity of the social object and subject, which can lead to bias in the result. The most serious limitations of this method that the sociologist must take into account include the following:

1. The observer’s mood during the experiment can negatively influence the nature of the perception of events and the assessment of facts. This influence is especially strong when the observer's incentive to observe is too weak.

2. The attitude towards the observed is quite strongly influenced by the social position of the observer. His own interests and position may contribute to the fact that some acts of behavior of the observed will be reflected fragmentarily, while others - perhaps less important - may be assessed as more significant. For example, a young man’s critical attitude towards his teacher from the point of view of one observer can be assessed as a sign of his independence, and from the point of view of another - as obstinacy and extreme bad manners.

3. The tendency of the observer to expect is that he is too committed to a certain hypothesis and records only what corresponds to it. This can lead to the observer simply not seeing significant and important properties observables that do not fit into his original hypothesis. Moreover, those being observed can pick up on this predisposition and change their behavior, both for the better and for the worse.

4. The complexity of observation can be not only its advantage, but also a disadvantage, leading to the loss of what is essential among the huge set of recorded qualities.

5. Of course, circumstances in life are repeated, but not in all details, and the one-time occurrence of observed circumstances may prevent the recording of all details.

6. Personal meetings and acquaintances between the observer and the observed that precede the observation can lead to a shift in the entire picture of the observation under the influence of likes or dislikes formed during the meetings.

7. There is a danger of recording incorrect interpretations and assessments instead of real facts.

8. When the observer becomes psychologically tired, he begins to record minor events less frequently, misses some of them, makes mistakes, etc.

9. This method is also characterized by a halo effect, based on the general impression made by the observed on the observer. For example, if an observer notes a number of positive acts of behavior in the observed person, which in his opinion are significant, then all other acts are illuminated by him in the aura of the previously formed prestige of the observed person. This is reminiscent of the school effect of an excellent student when he performed poorly test task teacher, but the latter, under the influence of the authority of the excellent student, gives him an inflated grade.

10. The effect of leniency is the tendency of the observer to overestimate the observed. The initial position of the observer may be: “All people are good, why evaluate them poorly?” The effect of condescension can also be caused by sympathy for those being observed, concern for one’s own prestige, etc.

11. The auditor effect consists in the observer’s desire to look for only shortcomings in the activities and behavior of those being observed, according to the principle “there is no good without a bad thing” and to underestimate the assessment.

12. When using the observation method, averaging errors occur, which manifest themselves in the fear of extreme assessments of observed events. Since extreme characteristics are much less common than average ones, the observer is tempted to record only the average and typical and discards the extremes. As a result, the observation results become “discolored”. Here, to the detriment of the truth, an average effect works: one person ate two chickens, and the other - none, and on average it turns out that everyone ate a chicken, i.e. a lie.

13. Logical errors of this method are based on the fact that the observer records connections between features that do not actually have these connections. For example, there are false ideas that moral people are necessarily good-natured, good-natured people are gullible, and gullible people are obese, etc.

14. The contrast error consists in the observer’s desire to record qualities in the observed that he himself does not have.

15. The results of observation are often influenced by interfering factors: inconsistency of the observation situation with the demonstrated qualities, the presence of third parties, especially immediate superiors, etc.

16. The limited number of observed individuals causes difficulties in disseminating observation results to wider populations of society.

17. Surveillance requires a lot of time, as well as human, material and financial resources. For example, for 100 hours of observation, there are 200 hours of recording and about 300 hours for reporting on the results of the observation.

18. High demands are placed on the qualifications of performing sociologists. Therefore, costs are required for their training and instruction.

It is believed that observation originated and is still used most often in anthropology - the science of the origin, evolution of man and human races. Anthropologists observe the way of life, customs, morals and traditions of forgotten and small peoples, tribes and communities, their relationships and interactions. From anthropology to sociology came not only the methodology and methods of observation, but also their classification. However, observation in everyday life and scientific observation are far from the same thing. Scientific sociological observation is characterized by planning, consistency, mandatory subsequent verification of results, and a variety of types presented in Table 4.

Table 4

Classification of types of sociological observation

Each type of sociological observation has its own advantages and disadvantages. The task of the sociologist is to select or modify the type of observation that best suits the nature and characteristics of the object being studied. So. With the help of uncontrolled observation, real life situations are mainly studied in order to describe them. This type of observation is very phenomenological, is carried out without a rigid plan and is of a search and reconnaissance nature. It only allows you to “grope” for a problem, which can subsequently be subjected to controlled observation. The latter is more strict in nature and consists of control, increasing the number of observers, conducting a series of observations, etc.

Involved and non-involved observations are distinguished as observation “from within” and “from the outside”. With participant observation, the observer becomes a full member of the group he is studying. At the same time, conditions are created for recording the intimate aspects of the behavior of members of a social group. Such observation requires highly qualified observers and significant life self-restraints, since he has to share the lifestyle of the group under study. That is why there are few examples of the use of this type of observation in the practice of sociological research. In addition, during participant observation, the observer's subjectivity may specifically manifest itself; as a result of getting used to the algorithms of life of those being observed, he begins to justify them, thereby losing objectivity.

Thus, as a result of one of the first participant observations of the life of tramps, conducted by the American sociologist J. Anderson, who wandered with tramps around the country for many months, not only the unique features of their lifestyle were recorded, but also attempts were made to justify the standards of “vagrant life” ". There are also known studies using participant observation of the lives of “hippies”, foreign workers, lumpen, religious sects, etc. In Russia, participant observation was successfully used by V. Olshansky when studying the value orientations of young workers, who worked for a long time as an assembly mechanic at a factory.

Not included is called observation as if from the outside, when the researcher does not become an equal participant in the group being studied and does not influence its behavior. In terms of procedure, it is much simpler, but more superficial, making it difficult to take into account motives and motivations and the use of introspection. Meanwhile, the information recorded in this type of observation is devoid of any added action on the part of the sociologist.

Unstructured observation is based on the fact that the researcher does not determine in advance which elements of the process being studied he will observe. In this case, observation is carried out over the object as a whole, its boundaries, elements, problems, etc. are clarified. It is used, as a rule, at the initial stages of research to “target” problems, as well as in monographic studies.

Structured observation, as opposed to unstructured observation, involves a clear preliminary determination of what and how to observe. It is used mainly when describing situations and testing working hypotheses.

Field observation is focused on real life situations, and laboratory observation is focused on specially created conditions. The first type of observation is carried out when studying an object in natural conditions and is used in sociological research, and the second allows one to detect qualities of the subjects that are not manifested in real life, and are recorded only during experimental studies in laboratory conditions.

Open observation is one in which the subjects are aware of the very fact of observation, which can lead to elements of subjectivity in the result due to the unnaturalness of their behavior and the influence exerted on them by the observer. For reliability, it requires repeated observations by different observers, as well as taking into account the time of adaptation of the subjects to the observer. Such observation is used in the exploratory phases of the study.

As for incognito, or hidden, observation, it differs from included observation in that the sociologist, being in the group under study, observes from the side (he is disguised) and does not influence the course of events. In foreign sociology, there is a terminological combination “disguising yourself as a lamppost.” The fact is that it is human nature not to fixate the habitual, the attitude towards which is reminiscent of the attitude towards a lamppost that is not noticed during a walk. This phenomenon is often used by sociologists, for whom “lamp posts” are social roles familiar to people: business traveler, trainee, student in practice, etc. The results of observations in this case are more natural, but sometimes people have to be accustomed to a new “lamp post” ".



Sociological observation, depending on its types, is more or less programmable. In the structure of the observation method, it is customary to distinguish the following elements: 1) establishing the object and subject of observation, its units, as well as defining the goal and setting research tasks; 2) providing access to observed situations, obtaining appropriate permits, establishing contacts with people; 3) choosing a method (type) of observation and developing its procedure; 4) preparation of technical equipment and documents (replication of observation cards, protocols, briefing of observers, preparation of photo or television cameras, etc.); 5) conducting observations, collecting data, accumulating sociological information; 6) recording the results of observations, which can be performed in the form of: short-term recordings “hot on the heels”; filling out special cards (for example, to monitor a newcomer who has appeared in the group, as well as the behavior of his immediate environment, you can use the observation card model presented in Table 5); filling out observation protocols, which are an expanded version of observation cards; keeping an observation diary; use of video, photo, film and sound equipment; 7) monitoring surveillance, which involves: access to documents; conducting repeated observations;

Table 5

reference to other similar studies; 8) drawing up a report on the observation, which must contain the main provisions of the observation program; characteristics of time, place and situation; information about the method of observation; detailed descriptions of observed facts; interpretation of observation results.

Thus, in its most general form, the procedure for sociological observation provides for the following order of research actions by a sociologist.

1. Determining the purpose and objectives of observation (why observe and for what purpose?).

2. Selection of object and subject of observation (what to observe?).

3. Selection of observation situation (under what conditions to observe?).

4. Choosing a method (type) of observation (how to observe?).

5. Selecting a method for recording the observed event (how to keep records?).

6. Processing and interpretation of information obtained through observation (what is the result?).

Without a clear answer to all these questions, it is difficult to effectively carry out sociological observation. Despite all the attractiveness of observation as a method of collecting sociological information and its comparative simplicity, as already noted, it has many weaknesses. First of all, these are difficulties with the representativeness (reliability) of the data. When making observations, it is difficult to cover a large number of phenomena. This raises the possibility of errors in the interpretation of events and people’s actions from the point of view of the motives of their actions. The possibility of errors also exists because the sociologist not only observes. He has his own frame of reference, based on which he interprets certain facts and events in his own way. However, with all the subjectivity of perception, the main content of the materials also reflects the objective situation.

The practice of using observation not only confirms the fundamental ability of this method to provide objective information, but also serves as a decisive means of identifying and overcoming the subjectivity of results. In order to obtain objective information about the sociological phenomenon or fact being studied, the following control methods are used: observation of observation, control using other sociological methods, recourse to repeated observation, exclusion of evaluative terms from the records, etc. Thus, sociological observation is considered reliable, if, when repeated under the same conditions and with the same object, it gives the same results.

5. Documents in sociology



Documents are generally an important source of sociological information, and their analysis has become widespread in sociological research. The document analysis method (or documentary method) is one of the main methods of data collection in sociological research, which involves the use of information recorded in handwritten or printed text, on magnetic tape, film and other media. Studying documents gives the researcher the opportunity to see many important aspects of social life. In sociology, a document means a source (or subject) containing information about social facts and phenomena of social life, social subjects functioning and developing in modern society.

Classic example Documentary research in foreign sociology is the work of W. Thomas and F. Znaniecki “The Polish Peasant in Europe and America”, the material for which was letters from Polish emigrants. The authors accidentally purchased unclaimed letters at the post office and subjected them to sociological analysis, which marked the beginning not only of the use of the document analysis method in sociology, but also of a new direction in sociological research. This method has been used repeatedly in Russian sociology. The most indicative here is V. Lenin’s work “The Development of Capitalism in Russia”, created on the basis of a rethinking of the data of Russian zemstvo statistics.

Thus, the method of document analysis opens up a wide opportunity for the sociologist to see the reflected aspects of social reality contained in documentary sources. Therefore, you should not plan field research, much less go out on it, without first receiving official statistical data (not only central, but also local), without studying past and present research on this topic (if any), materials from books and magazines, reports from various departments and other materials. For example, a sociological study of the free time of residents of a particular city can begin with the collection of statistical data on the use of library funds, visits to theaters, concerts, etc.

However, in order to make full use of the opportunities provided by documents, you should obtain a systematic understanding of all their diversity. The classification of documents (Table 6), which is based on recording the information contained in a particular document, helps to navigate through documentary information. In other words, the form in which the information is recorded determines the purposes for which a particular document can be used and what method it can be most successfully analyzed.

Document analysis differs from other methods of sociological research in that it operates on ready-made information; In all other methods, the sociologist has to obtain this information specifically. In addition, the object of research in this method is mediated, replaced by a document. The biggest problem with this method is the lack of confidence in the reliability of the document and the sociological information it contains. After all, you may encounter a fake document. Or a situation may arise when the original is actually a fake in terms of the information contained in it, which may be a consequence of the ugly system of documentary additions that existed in the past, falsification of reporting and statistical materials. However, a fake can also be subjected to sociological analysis (if there is confidence that it is really a fake) to study the goals and methods of falsifying documents and their consequences for society.

The problem of the reliability of documentary information is also determined by the type of document. In general, the information contained in official documents compared to that contained in personal documents is more reliable, which can also be said about primary documents compared to secondary ones. Documents that have undergone special control, such as financial, legal and other types of control, have maximum reliability.

Table 6

Classification of types of documents in sociology

Basis of classification	Types of documents
Information recording technique	Written (all types of printed and handwritten products) Iconographic (video, film, photographic documents, paintings, engravings, etc.) Phonetic (radio recordings, tape recordings, CDs) Computer
	Official (created by legal entities and officials, formalized and certified) Personal or unofficial (created by unofficial persons)
Degree of proximity to fixed material	Primary (directly reflecting the material) Secondary (retelling the primary document)
Motives for creation	Provoked (specially brought to life: announcements of a competition, essays by schoolchildren, etc.) Unprovoked (created at the initiative of the author)
	Legal Historical Statistical Pedagogical Technical, etc.
Degree of preservation	Fully saved Partially saved

The reliability of various information fragments in a document may also vary. For example, if a personal letter contains a message about a rally and the number of its participants, then the fact of the rally itself is most reliable, but the estimate of the number of protesters may raise doubts. Reports of real events are much more reliable than reports assessing these events, since the latter always require serious verification.

In order to avoid the “traps of sensationalism”, as well as to increase the reliability of sociological information, the sociologist-researcher must follow the following rules: 1) make sure of the authenticity of the document; 2) find another document confirming the one in question; 3) clearly understand the purpose of the document and its meaning, and be able to read its language; 4) apply the documentary method in conjunction with other methods of collecting sociological information.

In sociology, there are many types of document analysis methods, but the most common and firmly established in the practice of sociological research are two: traditional, or classical (qualitative); formalized, or quantitative, also called content analysis (which translated from English means “content analysis”). Despite significant differences, they do not exclude, but complement each other, since they pursue one goal - to obtain reliable and reliable information.

6. Methods of sociological survey



A sociological survey is a method of collecting primary sociological information about the object being studied by asking questions to a certain group of people called respondents. The basis of a sociological survey is mediated (questioning) or non-mediated (interview) socio-psychological communication between the sociologist and the respondent by recording answers to a system of questions arising from the purpose and objectives of the study.

Sociological survey occupies a very important place in sociological research. Its main purpose is to obtain sociological information about the state of public, group, collective and individual opinion, as well as facts, events and assessments related to the life activities of respondents. According to some scientists, almost 90% of all empirical information is collected with its help. Questioning is the leading method in studying the sphere of people's consciousness. This method is especially important in the study of social processes and phenomena that are inaccessible to direct observation, as well as in cases where the area under study is poorly provided with documentary information.

A sociological survey, unlike other methods of collecting sociological information, allows you to “catch” through a system of formalized questions not only the accentuated opinions of respondents, but also the nuances, shades of their mood and structure of thinking, as well as to identify the role of intuitive aspects in their behavior. Therefore, many researchers consider a survey to be the simplest and most accessible method of collecting primary sociological information. In fact, the efficiency, simplicity, and cost-effectiveness of this method make it very popular and a priority compared to other methods of sociological research. However, this simplicity

and accessibility are often apparent. The problem is not in conducting the survey as such, but in obtaining high-quality survey data. And this requires appropriate conditions and compliance with certain requirements.

The main conditions of the survey (which have been verified by the practice of sociological research) include: 1) the availability of reliable instruments, justified by the research program; 2) creating a favorable, psychologically comfortable environment for the survey, which does not always depend only on the training and experience of the persons conducting it; 3) careful training of sociologists, who must have high intellectual speed, tact, and the ability to objectively assess their shortcomings and habits, which directly affects the quality of the survey; know the typology possible situations hampering the survey or provoking respondents to give inaccurate or incorrect answers; have experience in compiling questionnaires using sociologically correct methods that allow you to double-check the reliability of answers, etc.

Compliance with these requirements and their significance are largely determined by the types of sociological survey. In sociology, it is customary to distinguish between written (questioning) and oral (interviewing), face-to-face and correspondence (postal, telephone, press), expert and mass, selective and continuous (for example, referendum), national, regional, local, local, etc. ( table 7).

In the practice of sociological research, the most common type of survey is a survey, or questionnaire. This is explained by both the variety and quality of the sociological information that can be obtained with its help. The questionnaire survey is based on the statements of individuals and is carried out in order to identify the subtlest nuances in the opinions of those surveyed (respondents). The questionnaire survey method is the most important source of information about actually existing social facts and social activities. It begins, as a rule, with the formulation of program questions, the “translation” of the problems posed in the research program into questionnaire questions, with a formulation that excludes various interpretations and is understandable to the respondents.

In sociology, as analysis shows, two main types of questionnaires are used more often than others: continuous and sample.

Table 7

Classification of types of sociological survey

A type of continuous survey is a census, in which the entire population of the country is surveyed. WITH early XIX V. Population censuses are regularly conducted in European countries oh, and today they are used almost everywhere. Population censuses provide invaluable social information, but are extremely expensive - even rich countries can only afford this luxury once every 10 years. A continuous questionnaire survey, therefore, covers the entire population of respondents belonging to any social community or social group. The country's population is the largest of these communities. However, there are also smaller ones, for example, company personnel, participants in the Afghan war, WWII veterans, and residents of a small town. If the survey is carried out at such objects, it is also called continuous.

A sample survey (as opposed to a continuous survey) is a more economical and no less reliable method of collecting information, although it requires sophisticated methods and techniques. Its basis is the sample population, which is a smaller copy of the general population. The general population is considered to be the entire population of the country or that part of it that the sociologist intends

study, and sample - a set of people interviewed directly by a sociologist. In a continuous survey, the general and sample populations coincide, but in a sample survey they diverge. For example, the Gallup Institute in the USA regularly surveys 1.5-2 thousand people. and receives reliable data about the entire population (the error does not exceed a few percent). The general population is determined depending on the objectives of the study, the sample population is determined by mathematical methods. Thus, if a sociologist intends to look at the 1999 presidential elections in Ukraine through the eyes of its participants, then the general population will include all residents of Ukraine who have the right to vote, but he will not have to survey most of- sample population. In order for the sample to accurately reflect the general population, the sociologist adheres to the following rule: any sampler, regardless of place of residence, place of work, health status, gender, age and other circumstances that make it difficult to access him, should have the same opportunity to get into the sample population. A sociologist does not have the right to interview specially selected people, the first people he meets or the most accessible respondents. The probabilistic selection mechanism and special mathematical procedures that ensure the greatest objectivity are legitimate. It is believed that the random method is best way selection of typical representatives of the general population.

It should be noted that the art of a questionnaire survey lies in the correct formulation and arrangement of the questions asked. The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates was the first to address scientific questions. Walking through the streets of Athens, he verbally expounded his teachings, sometimes perplexing passers-by with his ingenious paradoxes. Today, in addition to sociologists, the survey method is used by journalists, doctors, investigators, and teachers. How does a sociological survey differ from surveys conducted by other specialists?

First distinctive feature sociological survey - the number of respondents. Specialists usually deal with one person. A sociologist interviews hundreds and thousands of people and only then, summarizing the information received, draws conclusions. Why does he do this? When they interview one person, they find out his personal opinion. A journalist interviewing a pop star, a doctor diagnosing a patient, an investigator finding out the causes of a person’s death don’t need anything more, since what they need is the personal opinion of the interviewee. A sociologist who interviews many people is interested in public opinion. Individual deviations, subjective biases, prejudices, erroneous judgments, intentional distortions, processed statistically, cancel each other out. As a result, the sociologist receives an average picture of social reality. Having surveyed, for example, 100 managers, he identifies the average representative of a given profession. That’s why the sociological questionnaire does not require you to indicate your last name, first name, patronymic and address: it is anonymous. So, the sociologist, receiving statistical information, identifies social types personality.

The second distinctive feature of a sociological survey is the reliability and objectivity of the information received. This feature is actually related to the first: by interviewing hundreds and thousands of people, the sociologist gets the opportunity to process the data mathematically. And by averaging diverse opinions, he receives more reliable information than a journalist. If all scientific and methodological requirements are strictly observed, this information can be called objective, although it was obtained on the basis of subjective opinions.

The third feature of a sociological survey lies in the very purpose of the survey. A doctor, journalist or investigator does not seek generalized information, but rather finds out what distinguishes one person from another. Of course, they all seek truthful information from the interviewee: the investigator - to a greater extent, the journalist who was ordered sensational material - to a lesser extent. But none of them is aimed at expanding scientific knowledge, enriching science, or clarifying scientific truth. Meanwhile, the data obtained by the sociologist (for example, about the patterns of connection between work, attitudes towards work and the form of leisure) free his fellow sociologists from the need to conduct the survey again. If it is confirmed that varied work (for example, a manager) predetermines varied leisure, and monotonous work (for example, a worker on an assembly line) is associated with monotonous, meaningless pastime (drinking, sleeping, watching TV), and if such a connection is theoretically proven, then we get a scientific social fact, universal and universal. However, such universality is of little satisfaction to a journalist or doctor, since they need to reveal individual characteristics and relationships.

An analysis of publications containing the results of sociological research shows that almost 90% of the data available in them was obtained using one or another type of sociological survey. Therefore, the popularity of this method is due to a number of fairly compelling reasons.

Firstly, behind the method of sociological survey there is a large historical tradition, which is based on statistical, psychological and test research carried out for a long time, which has allowed us to accumulate vast and unique experience. Secondly, the survey method is relatively simple. Therefore, it is often preferred in comparison with other methods of obtaining empirical information. In this regard, the survey method has become so popular that it is often identified with sociological science in general. Thirdly, the survey method has a certain universality, which makes it possible to obtain information both about the objective facts of social reality and about the subjective world of a person, his motives, values, life plans, interests, etc. Fourthly, the survey method can effectively used when conducting both large-scale (international, national) research and to obtain information in small social groups. Fifthly, the method of sociological survey is very convenient for quantitative processing of sociological information obtained with its help.

7. Methods of analysis and processing of sociological information



Empirical data obtained in the course of sociological research do not yet allow us to draw correct conclusions, discover patterns and trends, or test the hypotheses put forward by the research program. The obtained primary sociological information should be summarized, analyzed and scientifically integrated. To do this, all collected questionnaires, observation cards or interview forms must be checked, coded, entered into a computer, grouped the data obtained, compiled tables, graphs, diagrams, etc. In other words, it is necessary to apply methods of analysis and processing of empirical data.

In sociology, methods of analysis and processing of sociological information are understood as methods of transforming empirical data obtained in the course of sociological research. Transformation is done to make the data observable, compact and suitable for meaningful analysis, testing research hypotheses and interpretation. Although it is impossible to draw a sufficiently clear line between methods of analysis and processing methods, the former are usually understood as more complex procedures for transforming data that are intertwined with interpretation, and the latter are mainly routine, mechanical procedures for transforming the information received.

Meanwhile, the analysis and processing of sociological information as a holistic entity constitutes a stage of empirical sociological research, during which, with the help of logical and meaningful procedures and mathematical and statistical methods, the connections of the studied variables are revealed on the basis of primary data. With a certain degree of convention, information processing methods can be divided into primary and secondary. For primary processing methods, the initial information is data obtained during empirical research, i.e., the so-called “primary information”: respondents’ answers, expert assessments, observation data, etc. Examples of such methods are grouping, tabulation, calculation of multidimensional distributions of characteristics, classification, etc.

Secondary processing methods are used, as a rule, for primary processing data, i.e. these are methods for obtaining indicators calculated by frequencies, grouped data and clusters (averages, dispersion measures, connections, significance indicators, etc.). Methods of secondary processing can also include methods of graphical presentation of data, the initial information for which is percentages, tables, and indices.

In addition, methods for analyzing and processing sociological information can be divided into methods of statistical analysis of information, including methods of descriptive statistics (calculation of multivariate distributions of characteristics, average values, measures of dispersion), methods of inference statistics (for example, correlation, regression, factor, cluster, causal, loglinear, analysis of variance, multidimensional scaling, etc.), as well as methods for modeling and forecasting social phenomena and processes (for example, time series analysis, simulation modeling, Markov chains, etc.). Methods for analyzing and processing sociological information can also be divided into universal, which are suitable for analyzing most types of information, and special, suitable only for analyzing data presented in special form information (for example, analysis of sociometric data or content analysis of texts).

In terms of use technical means There are two types of processing of sociological information: manual and machine (using computer technology). Manual processing is used mainly as a primary method for small amounts of information (from several dozen to hundreds of questionnaires), as well as for relatively simple algorithms for its analysis. Secondary information processing is carried out using a microcalculator or other computer equipment. An example of sociological research that often uses manual processing, are pilot, expert and sociometric surveys.

However, the main means of data analysis and processing at present are computers, including personal computers, on which primary and most types of secondary processing and analysis of sociological information are carried out. In this case, the analysis and processing of sociological information on a computer is carried out, as a rule, through specially developed computer programs that implement methods for analyzing and processing sociological data. These programs are usually designed in the form of special sets of programs or so-called application packages for the analysis of sociological information. In large sociological centers, the analysis and processing of sociological information, along with application software packages, are based on archives and banks of sociological data, which make it possible not only to store necessary information, but also effectively use it when carrying out secondary analysis of sociological data.

Conclusion

Analysis shows that further development sociological science in Ukraine will largely depend on the political and economic situation in the country, the position and role of science in society, as well as the personnel and financial policies of the state. In the near future, domestic sociology (as well as world sociology) will more clearly define its subject, different from the subjects of other sciences, and will also more substantively engage in its own business, without replacing other sciences, and, in addition, will be institutionalized not only organizationally, but also conceptually and methodologically .

In this regard, in the near future we should expect the manifestation of another trend in domestic sociology - a reorientation from traditional connections with other sciences by object to connections by method, i.e. the development of principles, approaches and methods developed in other scientific disciplines, such as synergetics , development theory, systems theory, activity theory, organization theory, information theory, etc.

The development of methodological and methodological approaches in both theoretical and applied sociology will depend to one degree or another on the latest trend, in which the methodological problems of “translating” sociological categories from the theoretical level to the empirical level, as well as the transformation of sociological concepts, models and methods for the purpose of more effective application in the field of social technologies.

As for the methods and methodology of sociological research, in the near future we should expect from domestic sociologists an increase in efforts related to the search for obtaining reliable data, as well as the creation of wide networks of interviewers, which will allow sociological research to be carried out in a monitoring mode. Will be more widely used qualitative methods analysis of sociological data, as well as computer content analysis and computer-assisted interviews. In addition, at the beginning of the third millennium, we should expect the creation of powerful telephone interview networks.

Along with studies on all-Ukrainian (nationwide) samples, regional studies, i.e., studies on samples representative of the regions of Ukraine, will become increasingly common. Together with questionnaires, so-called flexible methods of collecting empirical data will be used much more often: in-depth interviews, focused conversations, etc. We can also expect a wider distribution of exploratory (without rigid hypotheses) and special methodological and methodological studies. At the same time, local, operational and compact empirical research can be no less effective for both applied and theoretical sociology various sides reforming social life (naturally, with a sufficiently high level of scientific organization and implementation).

The ethical side of both sociological science and the practical activities of domestic sociologists will continue to be of undoubted interest.




Literature:

1. Yu. P. Surmin N.V. Tulenkov "Methodology and methods of sociological research"

2. G. V. Shchekin “System of sociological knowledge”

3. N. P. Lukashevich N. V. Tulenkov “Sociology”




Model of an observation card carried out by a teacher during a literature lesson (A, B, C, D are students of the class).

1. Research methods in sociology.

2. Social relations in society.

4. Practical task.

References

1. Research methods in sociology.

Each level of sociological knowledge has its own research methodology. At the empirical level, sociological research is carried out, representing a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological, organizational and technical procedures, subordinated to a single goal: to obtain accurate objective data about the social phenomenon being studied. At the theoretical level, sociologists try to comprehend social reality as a single whole - either based on an understanding of society as a system (functionalism), or from an understanding of a person as a subject of social action (symbolic interactionism).

Theoretical methods. The structural-functional method occupies a significant place in sociology. From the standpoint of this method, society is considered as a functional system, which is characterized by such a function of any system as sustainability. This stability is ensured through reproduction, maintaining the balance of the system of elements. The structural-functional approach allows us to establish general, universal patterns of the functional action of social systems. Any social institution or organization can be considered as a system, namely the state, parties, trade unions, church. The structural-functional approach is characterized by the following features: the focus is on problems associated with the functioning and reproduction of the social structure; the structure is understood as a comprehensively integrated and harmonized system; the functions of social institutions are determined in relation to the state of integration or equilibrium of the social structure; the dynamics of social structure are explained on the basis of the “principle of consensus” - the principle of maintaining social balance.

The comparative method serves as a complement and adjustment to the structural-functional methodology. This method is based on the premise that there are certain general patterns of manifestation social behavior, since there is much in common in the social life, culture, and political systems of different peoples. The comparative method involves comparing similar social phenomena: social structure, government structure, family forms, power, traditions, etc. The use of the comparative method broadens the horizons of research and contributes to the fruitful use of the experience of other countries and peoples. Max Weber, for example, compared Protestant and Hindu varieties of fatalism in order to show how each of these types correlates with the corresponding system of secular values. E. Durkheim compared suicide statistics in Protestant and Catholic countries.

Methods of sociological research. A hypothesis in sociological research is a scientifically based assumption about the structure of social objects, about the nature of the elements and connections that form these objects, about the mechanism of their functioning and development. Scientific hypothesis can be formulated only as a result of a preliminary analysis of the object being studied.

The process of establishing the truth or falsity of a hypothesis is the process of its empirical substantiation, its verification in the course of sociological research. As a result of such research, hypotheses are either refuted or confirmed and become provisions of the theory, the truth of which has already been proven. A sociologist must resort to methods of collecting information such as observation, survey, testing, etc.

In sociological research, observation is understood as a method of collecting primary empirical data, which consists of deliberate, purposeful, systematic direct perception and recording of social facts that are subject to control and verification. The main advantage of direct observation is that it allows us to record events and elements of human behavior as they occur, while other methods of collecting primary data are based on preliminary or retrospective judgments of individuals. Another important advantage of this method is that the researcher is to a certain extent independent of the object of his research, he can collect facts regardless of the willingness of individuals or groups to speak or their ability to answer questions.

Observation contains a certain amount of objectivity, which is determined by the very installation of recording ongoing situations, phenomena, facts. However, there is also a subjective element to this procedure. Observation presupposes an inextricable connection between the observer and the object of observation, which leaves an imprint on the observer’s perception of social reality, and on the understanding of the essence of the observed phenomena and their interpretation. The stronger the observer is connected with the object of observation, the greater the element of subjectivity, the greater the emotional coloring of his perception. One more important feature The observation method that limits its use is the complexity, and sometimes the impossibility, of repeated observation.

Depending on the role of the observer in the situation being studied, four types of observation are distinguished: full participation of the observer in the situation; participant in the situation as an observer; observer as participant; the observer does not participate in the process.

Full participation in the situation presupposes the inclusion of the observer in the group being studied as a full member. The role of the observer is unknown to the group members. An example of this type of observation is the work of a researcher in a group of workers being studied without disclosing to them their actual position.

A survey is the most common method of collecting primary information. With its help, almost 90% of all sociological data are obtained. In each case, the survey involves addressing a direct participant and is aimed at those aspects of the process that are little or not amenable to direct observation. That is why a survey is indispensable when it comes to studying those substantive characteristics of social, collective and interpersonal relations that are hidden from prying eyes and appear only in certain conditions and situations.

A complete survey provides accurate information. A more economical and at the same time less reliable way of obtaining information is a sample survey. If you designate the entire population or that part of it about which you are trying to obtain information as a general population, then sample population(or just a sample) is an exact, but reduced copy of it. The famous Gallup Institute in the USA regularly surveys 1.5 - 2 thousand people, and receives reliable information about how all 300 million Americans will vote in the upcoming elections. The error does not exceed a few percent.

So, the sample population must be an exact copy of the general population. Deviation from the original is called representativeness error. It should not be very large, otherwise the sociologist has no right to extend the conclusions of a study in which a portion of people were interviewed to the entire population. To represent means to accurately reflect the general population using a sample. Mathematical statistics armed the sociologist with the most modern methods sample calculation. The main thing is that on the eve of the study, the sociologist accurately determines who is a typical representative of the general population and ensures that everyone has an equal chance of being included in the sample. And who exactly should be interviewed is decided by chance and mathematics.

The principles of sampling underlie all methods of sociology - questionnaires, interviews, observations, experiments, document analysis.

When surveying, the respondent fills out the questionnaire himself, in the presence of the questionnaire or without him. Depending on the form, it can be individual or group. In the latter case, a significant number of people can be interviewed in a short time. It can also be full-time and part-time. The most common forms of correspondence: postal survey, survey through a newspaper, magazine.

Interviewing involves personal communication with the interviewee, in which the researcher (or his authorized representative) asks questions and records the answers. In terms of the form of conduct, it can be direct, as they say, face to face, or indirect, for example, by telephone.

Depending on the source (carrier) of primary sociological information, a distinction is made between mass and specialized surveys. In a mass survey, the main source of information is representatives of various social groups whose activities are not directly related to the subject of analysis. Participants in mass surveys are usually called respondents. In specialized surveys, the main source of information is competent individuals whose professional or theoretical knowledge and life experience allow them to draw authoritative conclusions. In fact, the participants in such surveys are experts who can give a balanced assessment on issues of interest to the researcher. Hence another widely used name in sociology for such surveys is expert surveys, or assessments. The quality of assessments of the results themselves (confirming certain verification conditions among those specified in the hypothesis) depends on the conceptual and analytical approaches of experts and their ideological commitment.

In almost all industrialized countries, sociological experiments have been conducted and failed, providing empirical information through a variety of social measurement methods. Only in a sociological experiment is a research situation created that allows one to obtain very specific social information that is not extracted by other methods of social measurement. A sociological experiment is a method of obtaining social information in controlled and controlled conditions for studying social objects. At the same time, sociologists create a specific experimental situation with a special factor influencing it, which is not characteristic of the usual course of events. Under the influence of such a factor (or a number of factors), certain changes occur in the activities of the social objects under study, which are recorded by experimenters. In order to correctly select such a factor, called an independent variable, it is necessary to first study the social object theoretically, since it can lead to a comprehensive change in the object or “dissolve” in numerous connections and not have a significant impact on it.

Content analysis involves extracting sociological information from documentary sources. It is based on identifying certain quantitative statistical characteristics of texts (or messages). In other words, content analysis in sociology is a quantitative analysis of any kind of sociological information. Currently, the use of this method is associated with the widespread use of computer technology. The advantage of this method is the prompt receipt of factual data about a particular social phenomenon based on objective information.

2. Social relations in society.

The interrelation of social groups and communities of people existing in society is by no means static, but rather dynamic; it is manifested in the interaction of people regarding the satisfaction of their needs and the realization of interests. This interaction is characterized by two main factors:

1) the very activity of each of the subjects of society, directed by certain motives (it is these that the sociologist most often needs to identify);

2) those social relations into which social actors enter in order to satisfy their needs and interests.

We are talking about social relations as an aspect of the functioning of the social structure. And these relationships are very diverse. In a broad sense, all social relations can be called social, i.e. inherent in society.

In a narrow sense, social relations act as specific relations that exist along with economic, political and others. They develop between subjects, including between social groups, regarding the satisfaction of their needs for appropriate working conditions, material goods, improvement of life and leisure, obtaining education and access to objects of spiritual culture, as well as medical care and social security.

We are talking about meeting the needs in the so-called social sphere of people’s life, the needs of reproduction and development of their vital forces and their social self-affirmation, which consists, in particular, in ensuring the basic conditions for their existence and development in society.

The most important aspect of the functioning of the social sphere of society is the improvement of the social relations between people that arise here.

Depending on the level of development of the division of labor and socio-economic relations, various types of social structures have historically developed.

Thus, the social structure of a slave-owning society was made up of classes of slaves and slave owners, as well as artisans, traders, landowners, free peasants, representatives of mental activity - scientists, philosophers, poets, priests, teachers, doctors, etc. Suffice it to recall the vivid evidence of the development of scientific thought and spiritual culture of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, a number of countries of the Ancient East, to make sure how great the role of the intelligentsia is in the development of the peoples of these countries. This is confirmed by high level development political life in the ancient world, and the famous Roman private law.

The social structure of feudal society is clearly visible in the development of European countries of the pre-capitalist era. It represented the interrelation of the main classes - feudal lords and serfs, as well as classes and various groups of the intelligentsia. The indicated classes, wherever they arise, differ from each other according to their place in the system social division labor and socio-economic relations.

Estates occupy a special place in it. In Russian sociology, little attention is paid to estates. Let's look at this issue in a little more detail.

Estates are social groups whose place in society is determined not only by their position in the system of socio-economic relations, but also by established traditions and legal acts.

Capitalist society, especially modern society, has a complex social structure. Within the framework of its social structure, primarily various groups of the bourgeoisie, the so-called middle class and workers interact. The presence of these classes is generally recognized by all more or less serious sociologists, politicians and government officials in capitalist countries, although some of them make various reservations regarding the understanding of classes, blurring the boundaries between them, etc.

Particularly much is said about the middle class of bourgeois society. It is characterized in a very unique way. It includes small and medium-income entrepreneurs, farmers, traders, highly paid workers and employees. The middle class includes the majority of the population of industrialized capitalist countries based on their income level. This approach has a right to exist. It has its own logic, especially since the big bourgeoisie and the majority of workers are not included in the middle class. However, there are other interpretations of the classes of the same bourgeois society, which are based on their place in the system of social division of labor and relations of ownership of the means of production.

The leading role in the economy and socio-political sphere of capitalist society is played by the monopoly bourgeoisie, including large industrialists, businessmen, bankers, who have monopolized the main sectors of the economy not only in their countries, but often beyond their borders, creating large transnational corporations. The relationship between the bourgeoisie and the working class is still the main link in the social structure of capitalist society. There are also classes of large landowners (latifundists) and peasants, including farmers. Depending on the amount of hired labor used and the level of income, farmers act as more or less wealthy peasants or as representatives of the small and medium, and sometimes large, agricultural bourgeoisie. An increasingly important role is played by the intelligentsia, including scientific and technical, humanitarian (teachers, doctors, lawyers, etc.), creative (writers, artists, composers, performers and other representatives of the intelligentsia working in the field of spiritual culture), as well as engaged in government activities.

Experience in building a socialist society in the countries of Central, Eastern Europe and Asia revealed the main directions of development of its social structure. Its main elements were considered to be the working class, the cooperative peasantry, the intelligentsia, the layers of private entrepreneurs that remained in some of these countries (Poland, China), as well as professional and demographic groups and national communities. Due to the significant deformation of socio-economic relations, the social structure of society was also deformed. This concerns primarily the relations between social groups of the city and the countryside, including between the industrial working class and the peasantry.

Forced collectivization essentially destroyed most of the enterprising and productive peasantry, and the unequal exchange of industrial products for agricultural products constantly led to a deterioration in the living conditions of the rural population, including collective farmers, state farm workers and employees, and the rural intelligentsia. The existing totalitarian regime treated the entire intelligentsia mainly as a stratum serving the interests of workers and peasants, with little regard for its own interests, and sometimes, showing open disrespect for it, forced its best representatives to serve its own goals. All this caused enormous damage to the development of the intelligentsia. Nor was the working class, in whose name the ruling bureaucracy exercised its dictatorship, the master of the situation.

The entire society was subordinated to the established administrative-bureaucratic system and a huge apparatus of officials, which essentially forced all social strata of society to serve their economic and political interests. It is clear that the restructuring of social relations that began in the mid-80s in a number of socialist countries was initially enthusiastically supported by the majority of sectors of society precisely because it declared as its goal the elimination of deformations also in the development of the social structure by establishing harmonious relations between all social groups, the most full and fair satisfaction of their needs and interests.

Characteristic features of totalitarianism:

1. General politicization and ideologization of society. The legislative, executive and judicial systems are controlled from one center - the political and ideological institution - the party.

2. Political freedoms and rights of citizens are formally recorded, but in reality they are absent. Laws protect only the interests of the state. The principle “everything that is not ordered is prohibited.”

3. There is no legal political opposition. Opposition views manifest themselves primarily in the form of dissidence.

4. The country recognizes the right to exist of only one ruling party. Any attempts to create alternative political and public associations are suppressed.

5. There is strict censorship of all media; it is prohibited to criticize government officials.

6. The police, army, special services, along with the functions of ensuring law and order, perform the functions of punitive bodies of the state and act as an instrument of mass repression.

7. Only the official ideology functions in society; all other ideological movements are subjected to severe persecution.

8. Power rests primarily on violence. At the same time, the ruling party is making great efforts to introduce state ideology. This ensures the support of the government from the absolute majority of the population. Religion and the church are formally separated from the state, but are under its strict control.

9. The economy is under strict control of government agencies.

10. Despite strict state control of all spheres of public life, bribery and corruption are widespread in society. People live by the norms of double morality: “we say one thing, we think differently.”

12. Formally, the rights of national minorities are proclaimed, but in reality they are significantly limited.

1. The most influential political force in society is the ruling group (dominant), in its hands, first of all, the executive power, whose powers under authoritarianism exceed the legislative power. The powers of parliament are limited.

2. The political rights and freedoms of citizens are significantly limited. The laws are predominantly on the side of the state, not the individual. The principle applies: “everything that is not permitted is prohibited.”

3. The state barely tolerates legal opposition and tries in every possible way to narrow the possibility of its action. Often the opposition is placed in such conditions that its activities become impossible.

4. There may be several parties in the country, but they are most likely dwarf and play an insignificant role, this is at best. In the worst case, all parties except the ruling one are banned and prosecuted by law. In some countries political parties are absent at all.

5. There is censorship over all media, which are allowed to criticize individual shortcomings of government policy, but in general, loyalty to the ruling system is maintained.

6. The police, army, and special services perform the functions of not only ensuring law and order, but also the functions of punitive bodies of the state. They guard the ruling regime and are often used to suppress social forces opposing the authorities. But these forces do not carry out mass repression.

7. The official ideology dominates in society, but other ideological movements are also allowed, more or less loyal to the ruling regime, but occupying a number of independent positions. The church is formally separated from the state, but is actually under the control of the state and generally supports the ruling classes

8. Sustained support for power in society, which is based not only on violence, but also on the official ideology shared by many. The majority of society is patriotic towards the country and generally supports the government. The minority opposes authoritarianism and fights for the transition to democracy. Civil society can exist, but is highly dependent on the state.

9. The vast public sector is quite tightly regulated by the state. Many authoritarian regimes get along quite well with free private enterprise and a market economy, and the economy can be either highly efficient or ineffective.

10. With complete regulation of all spheres of public life, mismanagement, corruption, and nepotism in the division of official positions can flourish in society. Moral standards are predominantly conservative in nature.

11. Unitary forms of state with strict centralization of power are characteristic.

12. The rights of national minorities are significantly curtailed and limited.

4. Practical task.

Indicate the main reasons for the lumpenization of Russian society in the 90s.

The main reason for the lumpenization of society lies in the nature of the reforms that our government has been carrying out since the early 90s. Let us consider the main milestones of the ongoing reforms and indicate those measures that had the greatest impact on the life of society.

As a result of the command-administrative system of economic management, Russia, like other former Soviet republics, found itself in a state of deep economic crisis. The catastrophic situation in the national economy was due to the following factors:

1) general nationalization, which led to the degradation of property relations and the elimination of normal economic incentives;

2) a deformed production structure with a high degree of militarization;

3) distortion of labor motivations, the dominance of social dependency.

The search for ways to transition to new economic relations, which took place in 1985 - 1990, was associated with the first steps of economic changes and gave rise to a number of laws on state enterprises, on leasing, on cooperatives, joint ventures etc. However, indecision, inconsistency, and resistance of conservative circles plunged the economy of the USSR, including Russian Federation, in a state of deep crisis.

In the fall of 1991, Russia inherited from the USSR an extremely unbalanced economy with an open inflation rate of over 300% per year. Suppressed inflation led to a general shortage of essential goods by the end of the year, with a budget deficit of over 30% of GDP. The huge external debt could not be serviced even by the confiscation of all foreign currency savings.

The huge budget deficit, the lack of foreign exchange reserves, the bankruptcy of Vnesheconombank, the collapse of administrative trade, and the looming threat of famine in large cities required solving, first of all, the task of restoring elementary macroeconomic balance and controllability of the national economy.

Changes in the country's economy began with the formation in November 1991. Russian government Y. Gaidar, who declared his readiness and determination to carry out radical economic reforms. The transformations in the national economy carried out by this government continued until December 1992 and were called “Gaidar reforms.” Their goal is to contain the deepening economic crisis and prevent the collapse of the economy. The main measure to implement this task was a strict monetary and financial policy, which in a number of countries led to economic stabilization.

In January 1992, price liberalization began in Russia, which increased by more than 245% in a month, and by 653.3% in just the first four months of 1992. This almost seven-fold explosion in prices by May 1992 “liquidated” the money overhang - the excess money supply and created certain prerequisites for economic stabilization and increased controllability of the national economy.

Despite the accompanying reforms, the fall in production and the decline in living standards for the vast majority of the population of the Russian Federation, the country is returning to normal consumer market, conditions are created for the start of structural changes in the economy, inefficient, technically and technologically backward industries are cut off.

However, the measures taken by the government of E. Gaidar to transfer the economy to a market framework turned out to be not entirely consistent, were not comprehensive and failed to use many of the most important economic mechanisms. The policy of "shock therapy" did not reach its logical conclusion.

The lack of consistency and firmness in carrying out reforms was most clearly manifested in the easing of financial and credit policy, the rejection of a deficit-free budget, and the massive credit issue of the Central Bank.

The remaining single ruble space with the absence of control over the emission activities of the former Soviet republics had a negative impact on the Russian economy. Through the imperfect mechanism of mutual settlements with the CIS countries, there was actual subsidizing of the economies of these states.

An alarming trend in social sphere The Russian Federation has seen a sharply defined gap in income levels between different layers of citizens. During the years of reforms, the difference in the levels of per capita income of the 10% of the most affluent population was approximately 20 times higher than the income of the same share of the least affluent; at the beginning of the reforms it was 4 times higher. According to a number of estimates that take into account hidden income, this gap is even greater. At the same time, in developed Western countries and Japan this figure does not exceed 6-7 times.

According to Russian President Boris Yeltsin, the authorities have not shown firmness in the fight against corruption or curbing the market element. Government structures were unable to resist the pressure of lobbying groups. Therefore, “new technologies” have emerged for the flow of wealth to a select few - the resale of budget resources and preferential centralized loans, evasion of taxes and customs duties, the actual seizure of federally owned blocks of shares. The growing property polarization of society leads to social tension and hinders the reform process.

The high cost of the ongoing transformations in Russia is evidenced by the reduction in life expectancy in the country - from 69 years in 1990 to 64 in 1995, exceeding for the first time since the Great Patriotic War. Patriotic War mortality over birth rate. The purchasing power of wage workers and the bulk of the intelligentsia, who live only on wages, fell 2.4 times. A third of the country's population (44 - 45 million people) have incomes below the subsistence level, 20% live in extreme poverty.

As a result of four years of reforms, significant changes have occurred in the economic and social life of the Russian Federation: the formation of various forms and types of business, market infrastructure has taken place, and the legal basis for its functioning has been determined. However, the Russian economy is still characterized by a trend of narrowing reproduction, a decrease in the efficiency of resource use, a decrease in employment, a decrease in effective demand and, as a result, a decrease in the level and quality of life of the majority of the population.

References

1. Belov G. A. Political Science. Tutorial. M., 1994.

2. Borisov V.K. Theory of the political system. M., 1991.

3. Demidov A. I., Fedoseev A. A. Fundamentals of political science. M., 1993.

4. Kamenskaya G.V., Rodionov A.P. Political systems of our time. M., 1994.

5. Fundamentals of Political Science: Course of Lectures / Ed. V. P. Pugacheva. M., 1992

6. Political science in questions and answers (consultations with political scientists). Textbook / Ed. E. A. Anufrieva. M., 1994.

7. Smelser N. Sociology. – M.: Moscow worker, 1994.

8. Sociology: Course of lectures / Ed. A.V. Mironova et al. - M., 1996.

9. Toshchenko Zh.T. Sociology. - M., 1994.

10. Frolov S.S. Fundamentals of Sociology. - M.: Algon, 1997.

© Posting material on others electronic resources only accompanied by an active link

Sociology test