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Analysis as a method of sociological research. Basic paradigms in sociology. Applied sociology is

Sociological research is currently used very widely. They are increasingly used by management personnel. Publicists refer to them in their materials. The results of sociological surveys and experiments are heard on television screens. Sometimes television itself organizes opinion polls. Every year the number of sociological studies conducted increases, the circle of professional sociologists and their active volunteer population, who are interested in mastering the wisdom of applied sociology, is expanding.

What is this, a tribute to fashion or an urgent requirement of the time? Undoubtedly modern society, scientists studying it, people living in it, want to know more about the actual state of things, about the processes and changes awaiting them in the near future. Applied sociology helps them understand this. The use of applied sociology methods contributes to:

reflection of the real state of social phenomena and identification of factors influencing their change;

identifying trends in the development of social relations and finding ways and means to improve them;

justification management decisions and evaluation of their effectiveness;

generalizing the experience of innovation and forecasting social situations;

studying social contradictions, conflicts and developing recommendations for overcoming them;

effective control over the state of affairs in various spheres of society.

Thus, the use of sociological research contributes to an in-depth study of social processes and phenomena, and allows one to avoid speculative and superficial conclusions and assessments in the work of a wide variety of organizations and individuals.

Practice shows that tangible help can only be provided by sociological research, the conduct of which is strictly subordinated to scientific requirements, which is based on the experience accumulated by applied sociology. In order to conduct methodologically competent research, it is necessary to acquire a certain amount of knowledge about the rules for its preparation and implementation, to understand what it can provide and what should not be expected from it.

The process of scientific research consists of certain phases, within which actions are taken that, to a certain extent, guarantee truth and objectivity both in the collection of facts and in the formulation of scientific conclusions. Let's look at the main ones.

1. Definition of the subject of research, formulation of goals, objectives, initial hypotheses.

As a rule, the subject of research is considered to be causal relationships between phenomena and processes in the real world. When determining the subject of research, first of all, the phenomena that will be studied are identified, and then their connections that are to be studied. The study of these connections and the answer to the main question posed by the researcher constitute the purpose of the study. The goal will be achieved with a much higher probability if it is differentiated and divided into separate tasks, each of which will represent, as it were, a part of the goal, or a stage towards achieving the goal of the research.

Then they begin to formulate the initial hypothesis (hypotheses) that the study should confirm or refute. A scientific hypothesis must satisfy the following requirements:

build on clear concepts;

refer to objects that can be subjected to empirical testing;

be consistent with the appropriate research technique.

After this, you can move on to the next phase of the study - developing a plan.

2. Development of a research plan.

Drawing up a research plan is a methodological part of the research work. It should provide methods for collecting, processing and analyzing data; justify the sample, distribute forces and resources. Sampling rationale is central to the research design. To do this, the sociologist must clearly understand:

the size of the volume of empirical research (organization, city, region, etc.);

the amount of effort and funds allocated for research.

Based on this, he can determine whether the study will be continuous (that is, every member of the organization, resident of the city, region, etc. will be interviewed) or selective. In the second case, a sociological study must satisfy the requirements of representativeness.

Representativeness is a property sample population reproduce the parameters and significant elements of the general population. In this case, the general population is understood as the total sum of all possible social objects to be studied within the framework of a given research program.

A secondary (sample) population, or sample, is a part of the objects of the general population, selected using special techniques to obtain information about the entire population as a whole.

Determining a sample is an important planning task, in solving which sociologists use statistical theory (Table 15).

Source: Mannheim J. Rieg R. Political Science. Research methods. M., 1997. P. 518.

In addition to justifying the sample size, the research design should include the development of questionnaires and interview plans. Now you can move on to the next phase of the study - data collection.

3. Data collection.

At this stage, information is collected, on the basis of which conclusions are subsequently drawn about the connections between phenomena and their essence is clarified. However, collecting data in the course of studying social phenomena encounters objective difficulties. Let's look at some of them.

A particular difficulty in collecting data on a social phenomenon is associated with its complexity, since it is necessary to pay attention to many factors influencing it and find out their significance both for the phenomenon as a whole and for its individual elements. This is very difficult to do.

Data collection is complicated by the fact that the person collecting information about certain social phenomena, about society, is himself an integral part of society. And the point is not only that people, having learned that their behavior is the subject of research, begin to behave differently, but also that the researcher himself often sees the phenomenon not as it really is, but as he wants to see him.

In order to reduce these and other difficulties in the process of data collection, sociology has many methods (we will consider the main ones below).

4. Organizing and processing the collected data.

After all the necessary information has been collected about the phenomena that are the subject of research, on the basis of which the phenomena can be objectively and fully studied, they begin to classify the collected data.

In order for a classification to truly serve to organize the collected data, it must satisfy the following requirements:

classification must be based on a certain criterion;

it must be consistent, that is, based on one criterion or similar criteria;

the classification must be complete in order to cover as much as possible the scope of the phenomenon under study;

the classification must provide sufficient distinction between the groups into which the phenomena are distributed.

The collected and classified materials are statistically arranged and expressed through various tables. The tables present in generalized form (for example, in percentage terms) the answers to each of the questions posed.

5. Scientific explanation and verification.

Scientific explanation is the final phase of research. It includes the study of both the content, structure and functions, as well as the causes, methods of occurrence and development of the phenomena being studied. To do this, it is necessary to find what is typical among the phenomena being studied, to separate the main from the secondary, and also to isolate the primary causes from the many secondary ones.

Verification cannot be strictly separated from scientific explanation, since in the course of scientific explanation, verification of an already made conclusion about the connection between phenomena is always carried out. Check also plays important role, when the working hypothesis was not confirmed, a new hypothesis was put forward and new data were collected.

So, in order to conduct a sociological study, it is necessary to determine the subject of the study, formulate the goal, objectives and working hypothesis. Then develop a research plan, collect and process the data obtained. After this, you can move on to a scientific explanation and testing of the hypothesis. If it is not confirmed, the entire five-phase scientific research process must be repeated.

It should be remembered that the researcher is dealing with facts that are considered simultaneously as pieces of existence and as pieces of knowledge. The following may serve as sociological facts:

behavior of individuals or groups of people;

products of human life (material and spiritual);

verbal (oral, verbal) actions of people, i.e. their judgments, assessments, etc.

Facts are collected using special tools - methods.

Sociologists have and use a wide variety of scientific research methods. Let's consider the main ones:

1. Observation method.

Observation is the direct recording of facts by an eyewitness. Unlike ordinary scientific observation, it has the following features:

subordinated to research goals and objectives;

has a plan and procedure for collecting information;

observation data are recorded in diaries or protocols according to specific system. Depending on the position of the observer, there are:

included (participant) observation;

simple observation, when social facts are recorded by an observer who is not a direct participant in the events.

2. Study of documentary sources.

Documentary in sociology refers to any information recorded in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic tape, film, photographic film, computer floppy disk or any other medium. Documentary sources can be classified on several grounds.

in relation to the state:

official, i.e. created and approved by officially existing (registered, accredited, licensed government agencies for a certain type of activity) by organizations and individuals, as well as by government agencies themselves. Official documents may include materials, resolutions, statements, minutes and transcripts of meetings, state statistics, archives of parties and organizations, financial papers, etc.;

unofficial documentary sources are documents compiled by persons and organizations not authorized by the state for this type of activity;

in relation to the individual:

personal, i.e. directly related to a specific individual (for example, cards individual accounting, characteristics, questionnaires certified by signature, diaries, letters);

impersonal, not directly related to a specific person (statistical materials, press reports);

in relation to the participation in recorded events of the person who compiled this document:

primary, i.e. compiled by a participant in the events or the first researcher of a given phenomenon;

secondary documentary sources (obtained on the basis of primary ones).

It should be said about the problem of the reliability of documentary sources, which can be intentionally or unintentionally distorted. The reliability or unreliability of documentary sources is determined:

the environment in which the document was created;

purpose of drawing up the document.

The study of documentary sources is carried out using various techniques. One of the most common and fairly simple ones is content analysis. Its essence lies in the translation of textual information into quantitative indicators, while semantic, qualitative and quantitative units are used. The technique of content analysis was created by American sociologist Harold Lasswell during World War II to objectively analyze newspaper and magazine articles for their fascist orientation. Based on content analysis in the United States, the pro-fascist position of the newspaper “The True American” was proven, which, despite its patriotic name, conducted fascist propaganda. The table below illustrates the study of documentary sources using content analysis. The purpose of the study is to select from several applicants who could fill the vacant position (Table 16).

Similar tables can be compiled based on documentary sources of all applicants. The winner is the applicant who scores the largest amount points. Of course, before making a final decision, the HR manager must use other methods of studying applicants.

The reliability of information obtained using content analysis is ensured by:

control with the help of experts;

control by independent criterion (by observation of the control group);

re-encoding of text by different encoders. 3. Survey method.

Surveys are an indispensable method of obtaining information about subjective world of people, about public opinion. The survey method, unlike the previous ones, allows us to more or less objectively model people's behavior. If we compare it with the two previous methods we considered, we can note that it neutralizes such shortcomings as the length of time for collecting data by observation, the difficulty of identifying motives and, in general, internal personal attitudes by analyzing documents. But when using the survey method, certain difficulties also arise. Using the survey method, you can ask the question: “How would you behave in this or that situation?”, but you should keep in mind that when answering such questions, people are always trying to present themselves in the most favorable light, and not at all to give you an objective information about your behavior.

Sociologists in their research activities apply various types surveys.

1. An interview is a conversation conducted according to a specific plan, involving direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent (respondent).

The equivalent of such a conversation is the so-called free interview - usually a long conversation not according to a strict plan, but according to sample program(interview guide).

Based on the depth of penetration into the essence of problems, a distinction is made between clinical (in-depth) and focused interviews. The purpose of the first is to obtain information about the internal motivations and inclinations of the respondent, the second is to find out the reaction to a given influence. Based on the nature of the organization, interviews are divided into:

group, which are rarely used (for example, group conversation with discussion);

individual, which, in turn, are divided into personal and telephone.

2. The second type of survey is a questionnaire survey, which involves a strictly fixed order, content and form of questions, and a clear indication of the form of the answer. A questionnaire survey can be conducted either by direct survey, which is carried out in the presence of the questionnaire, or in the form of a correspondence survey.

To conduct any questionnaire survey, a questionnaire is required. What types of questions might it include?

Open question. The answer is given in free form.

Closed question. Respondents answer either “yes” or “no”, i.e. the answer options are provided in advance.

Semi-closed question (combines the previous two).

There is also such a type of questionnaire as a lightning survey (poll-voting, public opinion polling). It is used in public opinion surveys and usually contains only 3-4 questions regarding basic information of interest plus several questions related to the demographic and social characteristics of the respondents.

Questionnaire surveys are used to study a wide variety of problems. Therefore, they are very diverse in their topics and content, for example:

event questionnaires;

aimed at clarifying value orientations;

statistical questionnaires;

timing budgets, etc.

It should be noted that the depth and completeness of the information reflected in the questionnaire significantly depend on the general culture and outlook of the respondent.

The reliability of information can be determined using so-called trap questions. For example, in one of the regions of Russia, when conducting a questionnaire survey of readers, the following trap question was asked: “Did you like the book by science fiction writer N. Yakovlev “The Long Twilight of Mars”?” And although such a book and writer does not exist, nevertheless, 10% of respondents “read” this book and most of them “did not like it.”

The English sociologist Eysenck uses the so-called “lie scale” - a series of questions that help expose insincere respondents. He quietly inserts these questions into the questionnaire. Among them are the following:

Are you completely free from all prejudices?

Do you like to brag sometimes?

Do you always answer emails?

Have you sometimes told a lie?

Persons who fall into the “trap” are suspected of insincerity, and their profiles are not taken into account when processing the collected data.

Concluding our consideration of survey methods, let us dwell at least briefly on the technique of conducting them.

An ideal interview resembles a lively and relaxed conversation between two people equally interested in it, however, according to the English sociologist V. Goode, this is a pseudo-conversation, since the interviewer acts as a professional researcher imitating the role of an equal interlocutor. His task is to collect information about his “interlocutor”. To do this, he uses certain techniques.

Psychological contact with the respondent provides many advantages. Obtaining inaccessible information through a questionnaire survey does not provide the depth and completeness that is achieved through personal communication during an interview. But the reliability of the data is higher with a questionnaire survey.

During an interview, there is a danger of the interviewer influencing the respondent, since the first one fits the second one into a certain type of personality and, voluntarily or unwittingly, begins to ask appropriate questions. It is necessary to strive to overcome stereotyping by playing out different hypotheses of the respondent’s perception.

When conducting an interview, you should follow these simple rules:

It is best to start a conversation with a neutral topic that does not relate to the problems that will be raised in the interview;

behave relaxed and natural;

do not put pressure on the respondent;

the tempo of speech is “adjusted” to the tempo of the respondent’s speech;

remember that the best results are obtained when the interviewer and respondent are approximately the same age and opposite gender;

try to create an environment of psychological comfort (conduct the conversation while sitting, indoors, in the absence of strangers);

It’s better when one person conducts the conversation and another takes notes; the presence of a notepad and recording equipment embarrasses both the respondent and the interviewer.

In the very general view The interview algorithm may look like this:

establishing contact (introduce yourself, get to know each other);

consolidating contact (showing the importance of the information received, interest in it; respect for the respondent);

moving on to the main interview questions.

In addition to the actual sociological research methods, sociology also uses other methods borrowed, for example, from psychology, such as psychological tests and sociometry. Thus, sociology uses both sociological methods (observation, study of documents, surveys) and methods of psychology and other sciences to collect the necessary information.

Using these methods, sociologists collect social facts. However, sociological research does not end with collecting information. Its next stage (phase) is the analysis of empirical data.

At this stage, special analysis methods are used. Such analysis methods are:

grouping and typology of information;

searching for relationships between variables;

social experiment.

Let's take a closer look at these methods.

1. Method of grouping and typologizing information.

Grouping is the classification or ordering of data according to one characteristic. Linking facts into a system is carried out in accordance with the scientific hypothesis and the tasks being solved.

For example, if you want to find out how the level of knowledge and experience influences the management capabilities of people, then the collected information can be grouped according to the criteria of quality of education and length of work.

Typologization is the search for stable combinations of properties of social objects considered in several dimensions simultaneously.

2. Search for relationships between variables.

This method of analysis is illustrated in specific example. Let’s say that while carrying out rationalization work in a company, certain data was collected. If you put them in a table, you can see a certain relationship between the percentage of participation in rationalization work (the first variable) and the educational level and qualifications (the second variable) (Table 17).

3. Sociological experiment.

Sociological experiment is most often considered as a testing method scientific hypothesis. For example, the famous Hawthorne experiment, when the relationship between workplace illumination and labor productivity was tested (for more details, see pp. 144–145). Despite the fact that the hypothesis was not confirmed, the experiment discovered a completely new effect - the human factor of production. This is an example of a so-called natural experiment. However, it is not always possible to conduct a natural experiment. For example, no one will decide on such a method by exploring social relations operators during the liquidation of a nuclear accident. In such difficult situations, sociologists conduct a thought experiment - they operate with information about past events and predict their possible consequences.

These are the main methods of sociological research and methods of their application.

Name the phases of scientific research.

What requirements must a scientific hypothesis satisfy?

What does the research plan include?

What are the objective difficulties of collecting data in sociological research?

What requirements must a scientific classification satisfy?

What is scientific explanation and verification of sociological research?

What are social facts?

List the main methods of sociological research.

What is scientific observation?

Describe the study of documentary sources as a method of sociological research.

What is content analysis?

What types of surveys do you know?

What is an open and closed question?

How is the accuracy of information verified during surveys?

Name the basic techniques for conducting a survey.

What is grouping and typology of information?

Name the types of sociological experiments.

Batygin G.S. Lectures on the methodology of sociological research. M., 1995.

Voronov Yu. P. Methods of collecting information in sociological research. M., 1974.

Zdravomyslov A.G. Methodology and procedure of sociological research. M., 1969.

Ivanov V.N. Current problems of sociological research in modern stage. M., 1974.

How to conduct sociological research / Ed. M. K. Gorshkova, F. E. Sheregi. M., 1990.

Markovich D. General sociology. Rostov, 1993. Ch. 2.

Yadov V. A. Sociological research: methodology, program, methods. M., 1988.

The essence of sociological research. Social life constantly poses many questions to a person, which can only be answered with the help of scientific research, in particular sociological research. However, not every study social object is actually a sociological study. Sociological research is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological and organizational procedures, subordinated to a single goal: to obtain accurate and objective data about the social object, phenomenon and process being studied. Sociological research should be based on the use of specific sociological scientific methods, techniques and procedures.

For a clear and clear understanding of the essence of the sociological research process, it is necessary to understand the system and essence of the concepts that are most often used in the process of sociological research.

Methodology – the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge and transformation of reality. It is divided into general, applied by any science, and private, reflecting the specifics of knowledge of a particular science.

Sociological research method is a way of constructing and justifying a knowledge system. In sociology, the method is also general scientific theoretical methods, (abstraction, comparative, typological, systemic, etc.), and specific empirical methods (mathematical and statistical, methods of collecting sociological information: survey, observation, document analysis, etc.).

Any sociological study involves several stages :

Preparation of the study. This stage consists of thinking about the goal, drawing up a program and plan, determining the means and timing of the research, as well as choosing methods for analyzing and processing sociological information.

Collection of primary sociological information. Collection of non-generalized information in various forms (records from researchers, responses from respondents, extracts from documents, etc.).

Preparation of collected information for processing and actual processing of the received information.

Analysis of processed information, preparation of a scientific report based on the results of the study, as well as formulation of conclusions, development of recommendations and proposals for the customer.

Types of sociological research.

According to the way of knowing, according to the nature of the sociological knowledge obtained, they distinguish:

theoretical research . A feature of theoretical research is that the researcher works not with the object (phenomenon) itself, but with concepts that reflect this object (phenomenon);

empirical studies . The main content of such research is the collection and analysis of factual, real data about the object (phenomenon).

By using the final results studies are distinguished:

Most empirical studies have applied nature , i.e. The results obtained find practical application in various spheres of public life.

Sociologists also conduct basic research , which

fundamental – aimed at the development of science. These studies are initiated by scientists, departments, universities and conducted by academic institutions to test theoretical hypotheses and concepts.

applied – aimed at solving practical problems. Most often, the customers of empirical research are commercial structures, political parties, government agency, local governments.

Depending on the repeatability of the studies, there are:

one-time – allow you to get an idea of ​​the state, position, statics of any social object, phenomenon or process at a given moment;

repeated – are used to identify dynamics and changes in their development.

By the nature of the goals and objectives set, as well as according to the width and depth of the analysis of a social phenomenon or process, sociological research is divided into:

intelligence (aerobatic, sounding). With the help of such research it is possible to solve very limited problems. In essence, this is a “run-in” of the tools. Toolkit in sociology they refer to documents with the help of which primary information is collected. These include a questionnaire, an interview form, a questionnaire, and a card for recording observation results.

descriptive. Descriptive research is carried out according to a complete, sufficiently developed program and on the basis of proven tools. Descriptive research is usually used when the subject is a relatively large community of people with different characteristics. This could be the population of a city, district, region where people of different age categories live and work, level of education, marital status, financial security, etc.

analytical. Such studies aim at the most in-depth study of a phenomenon, when it is necessary not only to describe the structure and find out what determines its main quantitative and qualitative parameters. According to the methods used for collecting sociological information, the analytical research is comprehensive. In it, complementing each other, various forms of questioning, document analysis, and observation can be used.

Sociological research program. Any sociological research begins with the development of its program. The sociological research program can be viewed in two aspects. On the one hand, it represents the main document of scientific research, by which one can judge the degree of scientific validity of a particular sociological study. On the other hand, the program is a specific methodological model of research, which sets out methodological principles, the purpose and objectives of the study, as well as ways to achieve them.

Sociological Research Program is a scientific document that reflects a logically substantiated scheme of transition from a theoretical understanding of the problem to the tools of specific empirical research. The sociological research program is the main document of scientific research, containing the basic methodological and methodological research procedures.

1. Formulation of the problem situation . The reason for conducting sociological research is the actual contradiction that has arisen in the development of the social system, between its subsystems or individual elements of these subsystems; this kind of contradiction constitutes essence of the problem.

2. Definition of the object and subject of research. Formulating a problem inevitably entails defining the object of research. Object - this is a phenomenon or process at which sociological research is aimed (the area of ​​social reality, the activities of people, the people themselves). The object must be a carrier of contradiction. The object must be characterized by:

clear designations of the phenomenon, according to such parameters as professional affiliation (industry); spatial limitation (region, city, village); functional orientation (production, political, household);

certain time limitation;

the possibility of its quantitative measurement.

Item – that side of the object that is directly subject to study. Usually the subject contains the central question of the problem, associated with the assumption of the possibility of detecting a pattern or central tendency of the contradiction being studied.

After substantiating the problems, defining the object and subject, the purpose and objectives of the research can be formulated, the basic concepts are defined and interpreted.

Target research – the general focus of the research, the action plan, which determine the nature and systemic ordering of various acts and operations.

Research objective – This is a set of specific goals aimed at analyzing and solving a problem, i.e. what needs to be done specifically to achieve the purpose of the study.

Interpretation of basic concepts – this is a procedure for searching for empirical values ​​of the main theoretical provisions of the study, a process of transition to simpler and fixed components.

The sociologist constructs a preliminary explanation of the problem, i.e. formulates hypotheses. Sociological research hypothesis ovations – a scientific assumption about the structure of social objects, about the nature and essence of the connection between social phenomena.

Function of a hypothesis: obtaining new scientific statements that improve or generalize existing knowledge.

After solving problems related to the implementation of the methodological section of the program, move on to the methodological section. The creation of a methodological section of the program contributes to the concretization of the entire sociological research, as well as the transition from methodology to the practical solution of assigned problems. The structure of the methodological section of the program includes the following components: defining the population being studied or constructing a sample, justifying the methods and techniques for collecting sociological information, describing the methods of analysis and the logical scheme of data processing, drawing up a work plan for the study, developing a strategic plan for the study.

Sampling method in sociology. Currently, not a single mass sociological survey can do without the use of sampling. This is an extremely important stage in the development of the methodological section of the research program.

Sampling has not always played such a role in sociological research. Only starting from the 30s of the 20th century. The scale of the surveys began to expand to include national surveys, which entailed a significant increase in material costs for the surveys. The basic principle of surveys conducted in those days was simple: the more respondents are surveyed, the better and more accurate the result will be. However, starting from the first half of the 30s of the 20th century, the study of public opinion began to be carried out using strict methods of scientific analysis. At this time, probability theory and mathematical statistics arose and began to actively develop. Even then, researchers established that, based on the laws of probability theory, it is possible to get an idea of ​​the whole from a relatively small sample population, and with a fairly high degree of accuracy.

In 1933, an unknown researcher at the time, J. Gallup, conducted a series of experimental sample surveys in the United States to study the readability of newspapers and magazines. In 1934, he tested his methods on a larger scale, during the elections to the US Congress, where he quite accurately predicted the victory of the Democrats. In 1935 he created the American Gallup Institute. In 1936, based on sample surveys he conducted, he predicted T. Roosevelt's victory in the presidential election. The sample size was 1500 people. Since 1936, the sampling method has also been actively used in market research.

The basic idea of ​​a sample survey is that if there is a population of independent random variables, then it can be judged from a relatively small part. For example, a box contains 10 thousand balls, equally red and green. If you mix them and pull out 400 at random, it turns out that they are distributed approximately equally in color. If this operation is repeated many times, the result will be practically unchanged. Statistics allow you to determine the percentage of inaccuracy, which depends on the sample size.

The most important thing in the sampling method is that the structure of the entire population being studied is taken into account. Meanwhile, it is necessary to keep in mind that a sample survey is a survey with an error. In most studies, an error of 5% is acceptable. How larger size samples, the smaller the error.

Sampling method research allows us to draw a conclusion about the nature of the distribution of the studied characteristics population(a set of elements that are the object of sociological research.) based on consideration of only a certain part of it, called a sample population, or sample. Sample population – this is a reduced copy of the general population, or its micromodel, selected according to strictly specified rules and containing all its most important features and characteristics as a whole. The property of a sample population to recreate the characteristics of the general population is called representativeness.

Let's consider the main methods of selecting a population into a sample, which determine the typology, or species diversity of the sampling method.

1. Random (probability) sampling – it is a sample constructed in such a way that any person or object within the population has an equal chance of being selected for analysis. Thus, this is a more strict definition of randomness than the one we use in everyday life, but it is almost the same as choosing using a lottery.

Types of Probability Sampling:

simple random – constructed using a table of random numbers;

systematic - carried out at intervals in the list of objects;

serial - the units of random selection are certain nests, groups (families, groups, residential areas, etc.);

multi-stage - random, in several stages, where at each stage the selection unit changes;

2. Non-random ( purposeful) sample – This is a method of selection in which it is impossible to calculate in advance the probability of each element being included in the sample population. With this approach, it is impossible to calculate the representativeness of the sample, so sociologists prefer probability sampling. At the same time, situations often arise when non-random sampling is the only possible option.

Types of non-random sampling:

targeted – typical elements are selected according to established criteria;

quota – is constructed as a model that reproduces the structure of the general population in the form of quotas for the distribution of characteristics of the objects being studied. Most often, gender, age, education, employment are taken into account;

spontaneous - a “first comer” sample, where the criteria are not defined (an example is a regular mail survey of TV viewers, newspaper or magazine readers. In this case, it is almost impossible to indicate in advance the structure of the sample population, i.e. those respondents who fill out and send questionnaires by mail Therefore, the conclusions of such a study can only be extended to a certain population).

Each type of sampling method is distinguished by one or another level of accuracy and has its own specific features, which makes it possible to optimally solve specific problems of sociological research.

Methods and techniques for collecting sociological information. There are four main methods used to collect primary data:

Survey (questionnaire or interview);

Document analysis (qualitative and quantitative);

Observation (not included and included);

Experiment (scientific and practical).

Survey – a sociological method of obtaining information in which respondents (people being interviewed) are asked specially selected questions in written or oral form and asked to answer them.

Survey is the most common type of sociological research and at the same time the most widely used method of collecting primary information. With its help, from 70% to 90% of all sociological data are collected.

There are two types of sociological survey:

1. Questioning. When surveying, the respondent fills out the questionnaire himself, in the presence of the questionnaire or without him. The survey can be individual or group. The form of the survey can be either face-to-face or correspondence. The most common forms of the latter are mail survey and newspaper survey.

2. Interviewing. Involves direct communication between the interviewer and respondents. The interviewer asks the questions himself and records the answers. In terms of the form it can be carried out, it can be direct or indirect, for example, by telephone.

Depending on the source of information, there are:

1. Mass surveys. The source of information is representatives of large social groups (ethnic, religious, professional, etc.).

2. Specialized (expert) surveys. The main source of information is competent persons (experts) who have the professional and theoretical knowledge necessary for the researcher, life experience, which allows them to make authoritative conclusions.

The difference between a sociological survey and other surveys:

The first distinguishing feature is number of respondents (sociologists interview hundreds and thousands of people and get public opinion, while other surveys interview one or more people and get personal opinion).

The second distinguishing feature is reliability and objectivity. It is closely related to the first: by interviewing hundreds and thousands, the sociologist gets the opportunity to process the data mathematically. He averages out various opinions and as a result receives much more reliable information than, for example, a journalist.

T third distinctive feature– the purpose of the survey is to expand scientific knowledge, enrich science, clarify typical empirical situations (in sociology), and not reveal individual characteristics and deviations (in journalism, medicine, investigation). Scientific facts obtained by sociologists are universal and of a universal nature.

Document analysis. In sociology, a document is a specially created human object designed to transmit or store information.

The range of sociological documents reflecting various aspects of social life is so wide that any empirical sociological research must begin with an analysis of the information available on the problem of interest to the researcher.

According to the form of recording, documents are:

1. Written documents– these are archive materials, statistical reporting, scientific publications; press, personal documents (letters, autobiographies, memoirs, diaries, etc.).

2. Iconographic documents– these are works of fine art (paintings, engravings, sculptures), as well as films, videos and photographic documents.

3. Phonetic documents– these are disks, tape recordings, gramophone records. They are interesting as a reproduction of past events.

There are two main types of documentation analysis:

Traditional analysis– this is an interpretation of the content of a document, its interpretation. It is based on a mechanism for understanding text. Traditional analysis allows you to cover the deep, hidden aspects of the content of a document. The weak point of this method is subjectivity.

Formalized analysis– quantitative method of document analysis (content analysis). The essence of this method comes down to finding such easily countable signs, features, properties of a document (for example, the frequency of use of certain terms), which would necessarily reflect certain essential aspects of the content. Then the content becomes measurable, accessible to precise computational operations. The results of the analysis become sufficiently objective.

Observation in sociological research, it is a method of collecting primary information about the object being studied through direct perception and direct recording of all facts relating to the object being studied.

Observation is rarely the primary method for collecting social information. It is usually used along with other methods and serves specific purposes.

Depending on the degree of participation of the observer in the social situation under study, the following are distinguished:

1. Uninvolved (external) observation. The researcher or his assistants are located outside the object being studied. They observe the ongoing processes from the outside, do not interfere in their course, do not ask any questions - they simply record the course of events.

2. Participant observation, in which the observer, to one degree or another, is directly involved in the process being studied, is in contact with the people being observed and takes part in their activities.

Experiment in sociology - a method of obtaining information about an object as a result of the influence of certain controlled and adjustable factors on it. According to the specifics of the task at hand, they are distinguished:

Research experiment. In the course of this experiment, a hypothesis is tested that contains new scientific information that has not yet been sufficiently confirmed or has not been proven at all.

2. Practical experiment– involves numerous processes of experimentation in the sphere of social relations. This refers to the processes of experimentation that occur in the course of, for example, improving the education and training system.

The division of experiments into scientific research and practical is conditional, since a practical experiment often allows one to obtain new information of a scientific nature, and a scientific experiment ends with practical recommendations in one or another area of ​​public life.

Sociological research- this is a unique system of organizational and technical procedures through which it is possible to obtain scientific knowledge about social phenomena. This is a system of theoretical and empirical procedures that are collected into methods of sociological research.

Types of research

Before we begin to consider the main methods of sociological research, it is worth studying their varieties. B is divisible by three large groups: by purpose, by duration and depth of analysis.

According to the objectives, sociological research is divided into fundamental and applied. Fundamental ones determine and study social trends and patterns of social development. The results of these studies help decide complex problems. In turn, applied studies study specific objects and deal with solving certain problems that are not of a global nature.

All methods of sociological research differ from each other in their duration. So, there are:

• Long-term studies that last more than 3 years.
• Medium-term valid from six months to 3 years.
• Short-term ones last from 2 to 6 months.
• Express studies are carried out very quickly - from 1 week to 2 months maximum.

Research also differs in its depth, being divided into exploratory, descriptive and analytical.

Exploratory research is considered the simplest; it is used when the subject of research has not yet been studied. They have simplified tools and programs, and are most often used in the preliminary stages of larger-scale studies in order to set guidelines on what and where exactly to collect information.

Through descriptive research, scientists gain a holistic understanding of the phenomena being studied. They are carried out based on the full program of the chosen method of sociological research, using detailed tools and a large number of people to conduct surveys.

Analytical studies describe social phenomena and the reasons for their occurrence.

About methodology and methods

Reference books often contain such concepts as methodology and methods of sociological research. For those who are far from science, it is worth explaining one fundamental difference between them. Methods are methods of using organizational and technical procedures designed to collect sociological information. Methodology is a set of all possible research methods. Thus, the methodology and methods of sociological research can be considered related concepts, but not identical.

All methods that are known in sociology can be divided into two large groups: methods that are intended for collecting melons, and those that are responsible for their processing.

In turn, sociological research methods responsible for collecting data are divided into quantitative and qualitative. Qualitative methods help the scientist understand the essence of the phenomenon that occurred, while quantitative methods show how massively it has spread.

The family of quantitative methods of sociological research includes:

• Social survey.
• Content analysis of documents.
• Interview.
• Observation.
• Experiment.

Qualitative methods of sociological research include focus groups and case studies. This also includes unstructured interviews and ethnographic research.

As for the methods of analyzing sociological research, these include all kinds of statistical methods, such as ranking or scaling. To be able to apply statistics, sociologists use special software, such as OCA or SPSS.

Social survey

The first and main method of sociological research is considered to be a social survey. A survey is a method of collecting information about the object under study during a questionnaire or interview.

With the help of a social survey, you can obtain information that is not always displayed in documentary sources or cannot be noticed during the experiment. A survey is used when the necessary and only source of information is a person. Verbal information obtained through this method is considered more reliable than any other. It is easier to analyze and turn into quantitative indicators.

Another advantage of this method is that it is universal. During the interview, the interviewer records the motives and results of the individual's activities. This allows you to obtain information that none of the methods of sociological research can provide. In sociology, the concept of reliability of information is of great importance - this is when a respondent gives the same answers to the same questions. However, under different circumstances, a person may answer differently, so how the interviewer knows how to take into account all conditions and influence them is of great importance. It is necessary to maintain in a stable state as many factors affecting reliability as possible.

Each begins with an adaptation phase, when the respondent receives a certain motivation to answer. This phase consists of a greeting and the first few questions. The content of the questionnaire, its purpose and rules for filling it out are first explained to the respondent. The second stage is achieving the set goal, that is, collecting basic information. During the interview process, especially if the questionnaire is very long, the respondent’s interest in the task may fade. Therefore, questionnaires often use questions whose content is interesting to the subject, but may be absolutely useless for research.

The last stage of the survey is completion of the work. At the end of the questionnaire, there are usually easy questions written, most often this role is played by a demographic card. This method helps relieve tension, and the respondent will be more loyal to the interviewer. After all, as practice shows, if you do not take into account the condition of the subject, then the majority of respondents refuse to answer questions already halfway through the questionnaire.

Content analysis of documents

Also to sociological methods Research includes document analysis. In terms of popularity, this technique is second only to opinion polls, but in certain areas of research, content analysis is considered the main one.

Content analysis of documents is widespread in the sociology of politics, law, civil movements etc. Very often, by studying documents, scientists come up with new hypotheses, which are later tested using survey methods.

A document is a means of verifying information regarding facts, events or phenomena of objective reality. When using documents, it is worth taking into account the experience and traditions of a particular field, as well as related humanities. During the analysis, it is worthwhile to think critically about the information; this will help to correctly assess its objectivity.

Documents are classified according to different criteria. Depending on the methods of recording information, they are divided into written, phonetic, and iconographic. If we take into account authorship, then documents can be of official or personal origin. Motives also influence the creation of documents. Thus, provoked and unprovoked materials are distinguished.

Content analysis is the precise study of the content of a text array in order to determine or measure the social trends described in these arrays. This is a specific method of scientific-cognitive activity and sociological research. It is best used when there is a large volume of unsystematized material; if the text cannot be examined without summary assessments or when it is necessary high level accuracy.

For example, literary scholars have been trying for a very long time to establish which of the endings of “The Mermaid” belongs to Pushkin. With the help of content analysis and special computing programs, it was possible to establish that only one of them belongs to the author. Scientists made this conclusion, basing their opinion on the fact that each writer has his own style. The so-called frequency dictionary, that is, the specific repetition of various words. Having compiled a writer's dictionary and compared it with the frequency dictionary of all possible options completion, we found out that it was the original version of “The Mermaid” that was identical to Pushkin’s frequency dictionary.

The main thing in content analysis is to correctly identify semantic units. They can be words, phrases and sentences. By analyzing documents in this way, a sociologist can easily understand the main trends, changes and predict further development in a certain social segment.

Interview

Another method of sociological research is interviews. It means personal communication between the sociologist and the respondent. The interviewer asks questions and records the answers. The interview can be direct, that is, face to face, or indirect, such as by telephone, mail, online, etc.

According to the degree of freedom, interviews are:

• Formalized. In this case, the sociologist always strictly follows the research program. In sociological research methods, this method is often used in indirect surveys.
• Semi-formalized. Here the order of questions and their wording may change depending on how the conversation is going.
• Unformalized. Interviews can be conducted without questionnaires; depending on the course of the conversation, the sociologist himself chooses questions. This method is used for pilot or expert interviews, when there is no need to compare the results of the work performed.

Depending on who is the carrier of information, surveys are:

• Massive. Here the main sources of information are representatives of various social groups.
• Specialized. When only people knowledgeable in a particular survey are interviewed, which allows you to get completely authoritative answers. This survey is often called an expert interview.

In short, the sociological research method (in this particular case, interviews) is a very flexible tool collection of primary information. Interviews are indispensable if you need to study phenomena that cannot be observed from the outside.

Observation in sociology

This is a method of purposefully recording information about the object of perception. In sociology, a distinction is made between scientific and everyday observation. Characteristics scientific research - purposefulness and planning. Scientific observation is subject to certain goals and is carried out according to a pre-prepared plan. The researcher records the observation results and monitors their stability. There are three main features of observation:

1. The method of sociological research assumes that knowledge of social reality is closely related to the personal preferences of the scientist and his value orientations.
2. The sociologist emotionally perceives the object of observation.
3. It is difficult to repeat the observation, since objects are always exposed to various factors that change them.

Thus, when observing, the sociologist faces a number of difficulties of a subjective nature, since he interprets what he sees through the prism of his judgments. As for objective problems, here we can say the following: not all social facts can be observed, all observable processes are limited in time. Therefore, this method is used as an additional method for collecting sociological information. Observation is used if you need to deepen your knowledge or when it is impossible to obtain the necessary information by other methods.

The observation program consists of the following stages:

1. Definition of goals and objectives.
2. Selecting the type of observation that most accurately meets the objectives.
3. Identifying an object and subject.
4. Selecting a data recording method.
5. Interpretation of the information received.

Types of surveillance

Each specific method of sociological observation is classified according to various signs. The observation method is no exception. According to the degree of formalization it is divided into structuralized And not structured. That is, those that are carried out according to a pre-planned plan and spontaneously, when only the object of observation is known.

According to the observer's position, experiments of this kind are included And not included. In the first case, the sociologist takes direct part in the object being studied. For example, contacts the subject or participates in the same activity with the subjects being studied. With non-participant observation, the scientist simply watches how events develop and records them. Depending on the location and conditions of observation, there are field And laboratory For laboratory tests, candidates are specially selected and some situation is played out, but in the field, the sociologist simply monitors how individuals act in their natural environment. There are also observations systematic, when carried out repeatedly to measure the dynamics of change, and random(that is, disposable).

Experiment

For sociological research methods, the collection of primary information plays a paramount role. But it is not always possible to observe a certain phenomenon or find respondents who have visited specific social conditions. So sociologists are starting to conduct experiments. This specific method is based on the fact that the researcher and the subject interact in an artificially created environment.

Experiments are used when it is necessary to test hypotheses regarding the causes of certain social phenomena. Researchers compare two phenomena, where one has a hypothetical cause for the change, and the other does not. If, under the influence of certain factors, the subject of the study acts as previously predicted, then the hypothesis is considered proven.

Experiments happen research And confirming. Research helps determine the cause of certain phenomena, and confirmatory ones establish to what extent these reasons are true.

Before conducting an experiment, a sociologist must have all the necessary information about the research problem. First you need to formulate the problem and define key concepts. Next, identify variables, in particular external ones, that can significantly affect the course of the experiment. Particular attention should be paid to the selection of subjects. That is, take into account the characteristics of the general population, modeling it in a reduced format. Experimental and control subgroups should be equivalent.

During the experiment, the researcher directly influences the experimental subgroup, while the control group does not have any influence. The resulting differences are the independent variables from which new hypotheses are subsequently derived.

Focus group

Among qualitative methods In sociological research, focus groups have long been at the forefront. This method of obtaining information helps to obtain reliable data without requiring lengthy preparation and significant time expenditure.

To conduct a study, it is necessary to select from 8 to 12 people who were not previously familiar with each other, and appoint a moderator, someone who will conduct a dialogue with those present. All participants in the study should be familiar with the problem being studied.

A focus group is a discussion of a specific social problem, product, phenomenon, etc. The main task of the moderator is not to let the conversation fizzle out. It should encourage participants to express their opinions. To do this, he asks leading questions, provides quotes, or shows videos, asking for comments. In this case, each participant must express his opinion without repeating remarks that have already been made.

The entire procedure lasts approximately 1-2 hours, is recorded on video, and after the participants leave, the received material is reviewed, data is collected and interpreted.

Case study

Method No. 2 of sociological research in modern science- these are cases, or special cases. It originated in the Chicago School in the early twentieth century. Literally translated from English, case study means “case analysis.” This is a type of research where the object is a specific phenomenon, incident or historical figure. Researchers pay close attention to them in order to be able to predict in the future the processes that may occur in society.

There are three main approaches to this method:

1. Nomothetic. A single phenomenon is reduced to a general one, the researcher compares what happened with the norm and concludes how likely the mass spread of this phenomenon is.
2. Ideographic. The individual is considered unique, the so-called exception to the rule, which cannot be repeated in any social environment.
3. Integrated. The essence of this method is that during analysis the phenomenon is considered both unique and general, this helps to find the features of a pattern.

Ethnographic research

Ethnographic research plays a significant role in the study of society. The main principle is the naturalness of data collection. The essence of the method is simple: the closer the research situation is to everyday life, the more more real results will be obtained after collecting materials.

The task of researchers who work with ethnographic data is to describe in detail the behavior of individuals in certain conditions and give them meaning.

The ethnographic method is represented by a kind of reflective approach, in the center of which is the researcher himself. He studies materials that are informal and contextual. These could be diaries, notes, stories, newspaper clippings, etc. Based on these, the sociologist must create a detailed description of the life world of the public being studied. This method of sociological research allows us to obtain new ideas for research from theoretical data that were not previously taken into account.

It depends on the problem of study which method of sociological research the scientist will choose, but if one is not found, a new one can be created. Sociology is a young science that is still developing. Every year more and more new methods of studying society appear, which make it possible to predict its further development and, as a result, prevent the inevitable.

Sociological research as a means of understanding social reality.

Methodological manual: “Organization and conduct of sociological research” (Mg., 2009) – pp. 3-12

Methods of collecting and analyzing sociological information.

Methodological manual: “Sociological research: methodology, program, methods” (Mg., 2008).

Sampling method.

Methodological manual: “Organization and conduct of sociological research” (Mg., 2009); Methodological manual: “Sociological research: methodology, program, methods” (Mg., 2008).

Sociological research program and its structure.

Methodological manual: “Organization and conduct of sociological research” (Mg., 2009).

Methodology of sociological research

Sociology uses for its research general scientific methods, such as analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, systems approach, etc.

In addition, sociology has developed its own specific methods research:

observation; study of documentary sources; survey; testing; sociometry; social experiment.

Methodology sociological research answers the question how to conduct research, using what methods? Compliance with the requirements of the methodology ensures scientific level research. The first thing a sociologist begins a study with is programming. The program outlines justification of the problem research is formulated goals, tasks and working hypotheses research, determined object of study, sample and methods research. It also contains work plan research and processing program information received. Working hypotheses- these are the scientist’s assumptions about the possible patterns of the phenomena being studied. There are two types of hypotheses: essential and factorial. Essential hypotheses reveal the content of the phenomena under study. Factor hypotheses are assumptions about the causes of the phenomena being studied, about the factors affecting the dynamics of the processes being studied.

There are survey methods observations, document analysis, statistics, social experiment, social modeling. Object of study is that community, which, according to the goals, interests the sociologist. If studied public opinion population of the republic on any issue, then the target will be the adult population. In sociological research, as a rule, not the entire general population is surveyed, but only a part of it, which is called sampling. So, sample- this is the part of the population that consists of specific observation units in a given study. The sample size is determined using probability theory. The statistical minimum sample size is 30 people. When studying the public opinion of the republic, it is enough to survey 1200 - 2000 people. For a city scale, it is enough to interview approximately 500 - 800 people. To study individual labor collectives sometimes the sample is defined in quantity 10% of the total number of employees. More accurately the sample is calculated according to special formulas. It is important not only to determine size, but also sample composition. There are several ways to determine composition of respondents. All these ways must ensure representativeness of the sample. Representativeness or representativeness sampling is the correspondence of the social and demographic structure of the sample to the structure of the general population. For example, if the general population contains 40% pensioners, 20% youth, 50% women, 30% workers, then the sampling structure should also contain these social groups in the same proportions. Interviewing random passers-by on the street is considered unreliable. In some cases, if necessary, the program may contain a software package computer information processing. Research methods are selected in accordance with the nature of the problem being studied. Survey method. The most common is questionnaire using a questionnaire. The next survey option is interview, which can be carried out without a pre-prepared questionnaire, but according to a special plan. The sociologist talks with the respondent, asking questions during the conversation. In marketing sociological research, a survey method such as focus group. When discussing the desired consumer qualities of a future product in a group of 30 potential buyers.

Social statistics . By analyzing statistical data, comparing them by year, region and other indicators, a sociologist can draw important conclusions. Document analysis . In sociology, a document is understood as any recorded information: newspapers, magazines, letters, television and radio messages, etc. Quantitative and qualitative processing of documents is called in sociology content analysis . In the text of the document words, phrases, fragments of a certain topic are highlighted. Then the sociologist calculates the frequency of these text fragments and based on this a conclusion is made about degree of public attention to one problem or another. Observation method . He might be included, when a sociologist becomes involved in the activities of a community and observes the processes that interest him as if from the inside, taking part in them himself. Not included observation involves distancing the sociologist from the phenomenon being studied on the basis of a view, so to speak, “from the outside.” Method social experiment . There are two communities. One of them is control, the other is experimental. A sociologist changing any parameters in experimental group explores the effect of such influence. Social modeling method . Certain social phenomena are described in a mathematical, quantitative form, and then, using a computer, changes in these phenomena are simulated, including one or another parameter. Questionnaire and questionnaire survey. A questionnaire is a questionnaire that has a certain structure. The questionnaire has a title and an introduction. The introduction contains information about the purpose of the study, who is conducting the study, brief instructions about the method of filling out, indicating that the questionnaire is anonymous and a short, polite formula is desirable. The source of questions are research objectives, working hypotheses (both essential and factorial), customer wishes, questions from questionnaires, previously conducted similar studies. At the end of the questionnaire there are questions about the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondent (passport), such as gender, age, education, occupation, etc. Types of questions. An open question does not contain ready-made options answer. A closed question contains pre-prepared answers. The respondent must select one or more options. 2. Alternative or expanded questions. Alternative question requires a “yes” or “no” answer. An extended question, such as a “menu”, contains several answer options. A scale question allows you to measure the intensity, strength, and degree of importance of a particular answer option. The scale may look like sentences such as: “To a large extent,” “to a moderate extent,” “to a small extent.”

Types of sociological research.

Sociological research program, its structure and content.

Methods and techniques for collecting sociological data.

Problems of sociological research in medical science and the healthcare system.

1. In the structure of sociology, there are three interconnected levels: general sociological theory, special sociological theories and sociological research. They are also called private, empirical, applied or specific sociological research. All three levels complement each other, which makes it possible to obtain scientifically based results when studying social phenomena and processes.

Sociological research – it is a system of logically consistent methodological, methodological, organizational and technical procedures, subordinated to a single goal: to obtain accurate objective data about the social phenomenon being studied.

The research begins with its preparation: thinking about the goals, program, plan, determining the means, timing, processing methods, etc.

The second stage is the collection of primary sociological information (researcher’s notes, extracts from documents).

The third stage is preparing the information collected during the sociological research for processing, drawing up a processing program and the processing itself.

The final, fourth stage is the analysis of the processed information, preparation of a scientific report on the results of the study, formulation of conclusions and recommendations for the customer or subject.

The type of sociological research is determined by the nature of the goals and objectives set, the depth of the analysis of the social process.

There are three main types of sociological research: reconnaissance (pilot), descriptive and analytical.

Intelligence(or pilot, sounding) research is the simplest type of sociological analysis that allows solving limited problems. Methodological documents are being processed: questionnaires, interview forms, questionnaires. The program for such research has been simplified. The populations surveyed are small: from 20 to 100 people.

Exploratory research usually precedes an in-depth study of the problem. During it, goals, hypotheses, tasks, questions, and their formulation are clarified.

Descriptive research is a more complex type of sociological analysis. With its help, empirical information is obtained that gives a relatively holistic picture of the social phenomenon being studied. In descriptive research, one or more methods of collecting empirical data may be used. The combination of methods increases the reliability and completeness of information, allows you to make deeper conclusions and informed recommendations. Descriptive research allows you to get a relatively holistic picture of the phenomenon being studied and its structural elements. In addition, understanding and taking into account such comprehensive information helps to better understand the situation and more deeply justify the choice of means, forms and methods of managing social processes.

Descriptive research is usually used when the subject is a relatively large community of people with diverse characteristics. This could be a team of a large enterprise, where people of different professions and age categories work, with different work experience, level of education, marital status, and so on, or the population of a city, district, region, region. In such situations, identifying relatively homogeneous groups in the structure of an object makes it possible to evaluate them, compare and contrast the characteristics of interest to the researcher, and, in addition, to identify the presence and degree of development of connections between them.

The most serious type of sociological research is analytical study. It not only describes the elements of the phenomenon or process being studied, but also allows us to find out the reasons underlying it. The main purpose of such research is to search for cause-and-effect relationships.

Analytical research concludes exploratory and descriptive research in which information is collected that provides preliminary insight into certain elements of the social phenomenon or process being studied. If in the course of a descriptive study it is established whether there is a connection between the characteristics of the phenomenon being studied, then in the course of an analytical study it is determined whether the discovered connection is causal in nature. For example, if in the first case the presence of a connection between satisfaction with the content of the work performed and its effectiveness is recorded, then in the second case it is considered whether satisfaction with the content of work is the main or not the main reason, i.e. factor influencing the level of its effectiveness.

Since the reality is such that it is almost impossible to name in “pure form” any one factor that determines the features and characteristics of any social process or phenomenon, almost every analytical study examines a combination of factors. From it, factors are identified: basic and non-basic, temporary and permanent, controllable and uncontrollable, inherent in a given social institution or organization, etc.

Preparing an analytical study requires significant time, carefully developed programs and tools. According to the methods used for collecting sociological information, the analytical research is comprehensive. In it, complementing each other, various forms of questioning, document analysis, and observation can be used. Naturally, this requires the ability to “connect” information received through different channels and adhere to certain criteria for its interpretation. Thus, analytical research differs significantly not only in the content of its preparatory stage and the stage of collecting primary information, but also in the approach to analysis, generalization and explanation of the results obtained.

A type of analytical research can be considered social experiment. Its implementation involves the creation of an experimental situation by changing, to one degree or another, the normal operating conditions of the object. During the experiment, special attention is paid to the study of the “behavior” of those factors included in it that give the object new features and properties.

Preparing and conducting any experiment is quite labor-intensive and requires social knowledge and methodological skills. This is especially important when it comes to the introduction of new forms of social organization, fundamental changes in the social and everyday life of people, etc., deeply affecting personal, group and public interests. In some cases, experimentation is not just desirable, but necessary. It allows you to avoid accidents and unforeseen consequences, and more confidently, with scientific validity, offer new forms and methods of management to practice.

Depending on whether the subject is considered statically or dynamically, two more types of sociological research can be distinguished - targeted and repeated.

Spot research (it is called one-time) provides information about the state and quantitative characteristics of a phenomenon or process at the time of its study. This information, in a certain sense, can be called static, since it reflects, as it were, an instantaneous “slice” of an object, but does not answer the question about trends in its change over time.

Comparative data can only be obtained from several studies conducted sequentially at certain intervals. Such studies, based on a single program and tools, are called repeat studies. In essence, they represent a means of comparative sociological analysis, which is aimed at identifying the dynamics of the development of an object.

Depending on the goals put forward, repeated collection of information can take place in two, three or more stages. The duration of the time interval between the initial and repeated stages of research is very different, since social processes have unequal dynamics and cyclicity. Often it is the properties of the object that suggest the time intervals for repeated studies. For example, if trends in the implementation of life plans of high school graduates are being studied and they were surveyed for the first time before final exams, then it is obvious that the earliest date for repeat research is after completion of admission to universities or entry into work.

A special type of repeated research is panel. Let's say that during a repeated study the degree of effectiveness of education is determined. It is usually determined regardless of how the object has changed during the period between the initial and repeated stages of the study. A panel study involves repeatedly studying the same individuals at specified intervals. Therefore, for panel studies, it is advisable to maintain such intervals that allow maximally maintaining the stability of the population under study in terms of its size and composition. These studies provide good opportunity update and enrich information reflecting the dynamics and direction of development.

2. The preparation of a sociological study directly begins not with the preparation of a questionnaire, but with the development of its program, consisting of methodological and methodological sections.

ANDresearch program- a specially developed scientific document containing a description of the main premises of this scientific research.

Since the prerequisites for empirical sociological research are theoretical-methodological and procedural-methodological in nature, the research program consists of at least two main sections (parts). IN methodological section programs include:

a) formulation and justification of the object and subject of the social problem;

b) definition of the object and subject of sociological research;

c) defining the researcher’s tasks and formulating hypotheses.

The methodological section of the program involves defining the population being studied, characterizing methods for collecting primary sociological information, the sequence of using tools for collecting it, and a logical scheme for processing the collected data.

An essential part of the program of any research is, first of all, a deep and comprehensive justification of methodological approaches and methodological techniques for studying a social problem, which should be understood as a “social contradiction”, perceived by subjects as a significant discrepancy for them between the existing and official, between goals and results of activities, arising from - due to the lack or insufficiency of means to achieve goals, obstacles on this path, struggle around goals between various actors, which leads to dissatisfaction of social needs 2.

It is important to distinguish between the object and subject of research. The choice of object and subject of research is, to a certain extent, already inherent in the social problem itself.

Object Research can be carried out on any social process, sphere of social life, work collective, any social relations, documents. The main thing is that they all contain a social contradiction and give rise to a problematic situation.

Item research - certain ideas, properties, characteristics inherent in a given team, the most significant from a practical or theoretical point of view, i.e., what is subject to direct study. Other properties and features of the object remain outside the field of view of the sociologist.

The methodology distinguishes three levels of system descriptions of a sociological object: elements, relationships between elements; holistic system formations.

First level - individuals, components of an elementary, arithmetic set. In most cases, a sociologist has to deal with individuals, countries, institutions, texts, and events. Despite the fact that people, countries, institutions, texts and events are complex systems, units of research act as self-sufficient objects with their own parameters.

The second level is the relationship between the elements of the population. Relational descriptions do not refer to individual elements, but to the relationships between them. If we are talking, for example, about group dynamics, relationships are described in terms of “cohesion - conflict”. If the unit is a settlement, the distance between settlements is a characteristic of the relationship.

Third level - holistic integrative qualities systemic education, not derived from individual characteristics. Here the totality appears as an indivisible (atomic) self-sufficient unit. IN to the greatest extent Social institutions have integrative properties, but groups also have supra-individual descriptions.

Unit of study be it an institution, a group, a person, a thing or an event, is part of a systemic universe and itself in turn consists of many elements. The problem is that supra-individual entities - groups, regions, institutions - have some characteristics that cannot be derived from individual characteristics.

Procedure there is a sequence of all operations, a system of actions and ways of organizing research. This is the most general, moreover, collective concept related to the system of methods for collecting and processing sociological information.

Technique differs from a procedure as a special operation of establishing facts or manipulating them, separated from the main procedure. Following this distinction, there are five basic procedures that are part of the methodology of any science. These are statistical, experimental, typological, historical and sampling procedures. On the other hand, there are an innumerable number of techniques derived from these procedures, directly or in combination.

Strategic Research Plan suggests three options:

search, when there is no clear idea about the object, the sociologist could not put forward scientific hypotheses;

analytical, used when testing a descriptive hypothesis and obtaining accurate qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the research object using questionnaires, sampling and statistical methods;

3)experimental, used to establish cause-and-effect relationships in an object.

Work plan contains concrete steps on conducting the research. It includes: the procedure for preparing a group of sociologists taking part in the study; number of tools; volume; terms and conditions of replication; training of interviewers and their number; time and place; survey form; terms of data processing; preparation of the report.

Supporting documents - This calendar plan; instructions to interviewers and questionnaires on survey techniques; sample card; instructions for coders to close open questions; regulatory documents.

A document is a set of methodological techniques used to collect primary information from documentary sources.

Analysis of any problem can be carried out in theoretical and applied directions, depending on the purpose of the study. The purpose of the study can be formulated as theoretical. Then, when preparing the program, the main attention is paid to theoretical and methodological issues. The object of research is determined only after preliminary theoretical work has been completed.

Drawing up the methodological part of the study begins with a description and justification of the primary information collection methods used in the study. This could be a characteristic of a questionnaire survey, interview, observation, etc. The program not only lists these methods, but provides a detailed explanation of why this particular research technique was preferred, how it helps in solving the research problems and testing the hypotheses put forward and in achieving the purpose of the study.

Population- this is an object of research that is “localized” territorially, industrially, in time and to which the conclusions of this study apply. In a sociological study, it is impossible to interview all the people who fall under the object of study, since these can be thousands, millions of people, so it is not continuous, but selective.

Sample population - this is a certain number of elements of the general population, selected according to a strictly specified rule. The structure of the sample population should coincide as much as possible with the structure of the general population in terms of the main characteristics and characteristics being studied. In this case, the sample is called representative.

Sample There is:

a set of methods for selecting elements of an object of sociological research, corresponding units of observation and their study;

part of the elements of the object of sociological research, reflecting the characteristics of all its components, i.e. the general population.

One of the main values ​​of sample quality is representativeness, which depends on the nature of the purpose and the information collected, the greater or lesser homogeneity of the object being studied, the degree of selection accuracy, reflecting the structure of the entire object. Types of sampling are determined by procedures for establishing structural relationships between sample size and object: empirical; random; zoned; stratification, etc. Hence, the “sampling research” technique is a systematic way of collecting data about an object associated with sampling research.

The rules for sampling are such that in the process of selecting respondents, you first have to select certain regions, enterprises, institutions, etc., and then directly the respondents. The elements selected at each sampling stage are called selection units.

Random (probability) sampling means that each element in the population must have an equal probability of being included in the sample. The "law of large numbers" is used here.

Hypotheses and theories. Research often begins with intuition suggesting the cause of events or phenomena. For example, my student Mark intuitively felt that differences in the social attitudes of students could be explained by differences in the income of their parents.

An assumption about a causal relationship between two groups of facts (for example, between belonging to a certain social class and a socio-political position) is called a hypothesis. The hypothesis must be formulated in such a way that it can be confirmed or refuted.

Hypotheses are nothing related ideas. They are always based on one or more theories. A theory is a statement containing a system of interrelated hypotheses. Mark chose certain hypotheses because he held certain views regarding the influence of social class on people's behavior and attitudes. If his views had been different (for example, if he had given primary importance to the influence of religion), he would have formulated a different set of hypotheses or assumptions about the relationships between the data he collected.

So, the components of sociological knowledge are facts, hypotheses and theories.

Sociological methods are the rules and methods by which connections are established between facts, hypotheses and theories.

Variables. We have already said that sociology seeks to provide a scientific explanation of society and social relations.

Sociologists strive to identify cause-and-effect relationships by finding dependencies between variables. A variable is a concept that can take on different values. Age is a variable. It has a whole range of meanings: 6 months, 18 years, 47 years, etc.

Most sociological research seeks to identify and measure variation within one specific phenomenon. The first phenomenon is called the dependent variable. The second, which explains or causes the first, is called the independent variable. When sociologists have an inkling of the relationship between an independent and dependent variable, they formulate a hypothesis. In other words, on the dependent variable, i.e. behavior is influenced by the independent variable.

3. Over time, sociology has mastered a variety of methods for identifying cause-and-effect relationships in social life.

Sample survey. By the middle of the 19th century. Many governments regularly conducted censuses or counts of their populations. In the United States, a census has been taken every ten years since 1790. An opinion poll is in many ways similar to a census. It was used by Charles Booth in his study of poverty in London and by Frederic Le Play in his study of the French working classes. Based on the techniques used by these and other European sociologists, the modern method of sampling was developed. It consists of systematically collecting data on the behavior and social attitudes of people through a survey of a specially selected group of respondents who talk about themselves and express their opinions on various issues.

At present, the sampling method is perhaps the most frequently used in the social sciences. It can be used simultaneously to both describe and explain social facts. The researcher begins by carefully defining the group of people (or other entities, such as a family) that he or she will study.

This group is called the population. It includes all members of society who have a given social characteristic. You can choose any attribute: Democrats who voted in previous elections, pregnant women under the age of 20, blacks holding police positions in Detroit. Populations studied by sociologists are groups of people who share one or more common characteristics. Groups are often so large that examining each member requires a significant investment of money and time. Therefore, based on practical considerations, at the next stage of work the researcher samples or selects that part of the population that he will study. Based on the right sample, reliable data can be obtained that characterizes the entire population.

After constructing the sample, it is necessary to formulate questions that respondents included in the sample will be asked to answer. Survey results must be recorded, classified and summarized (usually using a computer). The sampling method has great advantages. This best way obtain a representative idea of ​​the characteristic features of people’s behavior and their life positions. However, since almost all of the data here comes from the respondents' words, some researchers feel that this method is not very helpful in understanding the deeper meaning of the responses.

Field research. In the United States, the first major studies of social conditions were conducted by scientists who observed people's behavior in real-life situations. This method, known as field research, was first used in the 20s of our century by representatives of the “Chicago School”, which (as we already know) dominated American sociology until the 40s. Today, field research still serves as one of the main methods of sociological analysis.

Field research has at least one advantage over the sample survey method. In a survey, the researcher asks people to remember how they behaved or how they felt at a certain time. As a result, the data obtained are divorced from the real lives of the respondents. Using the field method, researchers can solve this problem: they are on the scene and make direct observations of what interests them. For example, a sociology student who is a member of a college football team and can directly observe players using performance-enhancing drugs will certainly obtain more valid data than one who simply asks the players about their use of performance-enhancing drugs.

For these reasons, information collected from field research may be more reliable than survey data. However, since field research usually covers a single situation, its results are also limited. Therefore, a study of doping use by members of one football team can reveal a lot about that particular team, but it would be dangerous to try to draw a general conclusion about all football teams based on this information.

Under observation in sociology, direct recording of events by an eyewitness is implied. Surveillance can wear different character. Sometimes a sociologist independently observes current events. Sometimes he can use observational data from others.

Observation can be simple and scientific. Simple is something that is not subject to a plan and is carried out without a clearly developed system. Scientific observation is different in that:

a) It is subject to a clear research goal and clearly defined objectives.

b) Scientific observation is planned according to a pre-determined procedure.

c) All observation data are recorded in protocols or diaries according to a specific system.

d) Information obtained through scientific observation must be controllable for validity and stability.

Observation is classified:

1) According to the degree of formalization, uncontrolled (or non-standardized, structureless) and controlled (standardized, structured) are distinguished. In uncontrolled observation, only a basic plan is used, but in controlled observation, events are recorded according to a detailed procedure.

2) Depending on the position of the observer, a distinction is made between participant (or included) and simple (non-involved) observations. During participant observation, the researcher imitates entering a social environment, adapts to it and analyzes events as if “from the inside.” In non-participant (simple) observation, the researcher observes “from the side,” without interfering in events. In both cases, surveillance can be carried out openly or incognito.

One of the modifications of participant observation is called stimulating observation. This method involves the researcher’s influence on the events he observes. The sociologist creates a certain situation in order to stimulate events, which makes it possible to assess the reaction to this intervention.

3) According to the conditions of organization, observations are divided into field (observations in natural conditions) and laboratory (in an experimental situation).

The procedure for any observation consists of answering the questions: “What to observe?”, “How to observe?” and “How to take notes?” Let's try to find answers to them.

The first question is answered by the research program, in particular the state of the hypotheses, empirical indicators of the identified concepts, and the research strategy as a whole. In the absence of clear hypotheses, when the study is carried out according to a formative (approximate) plan, simple or unstructured observation is used. The purpose of such preliminary observation is to come up with hypotheses for a more rigorous description of the observed object. The following is used:

1) General characteristics of the social situation, including such elements as: sphere of activity (production, non-production, clarification of its features, etc.); rules and regulations governing the condition of the object as a whole (formal and generally accepted, but not enshrined in instructions or orders); the degree of self-regulation of the object of observation (to what extent its state is determined by external factors and internal causes). 2) An attempt to determine the typicality of the observed object in a given situation, relative to other objects and situations; ecological environment, area of ​​life, social, economic and political atmosphere, state of public consciousness at the moment.

3) Subjects or participants in social events. Depending on common task their observations can be classified: according to demographic and social characteristics; by content of activity (nature of work, area of ​​occupation, area of ​​leisure); regarding status in a team or group (team leader, subordinate, administrator, public figure, team member...); according to official functions in joint activities at the object under study (responsibilities, rights, real possibilities for their implementation; rules that they strictly follow and which they ignore...); by informal relationships and functions (friendship, connections, informal leadership, authority...).

4) The purpose of activity and social interests of subjects and groups: general and group goals and interests; formal and informal; approved and disapproved in a given environment; consistency of interests and goals.

5) The structure of activity from the outside: external motivations (stimuli), internal conscious intentions (motives), means used to achieve goals (according to the content of the means and their moral assessment), according to the intensity of activity (productive, reproductive; intense, calm) and according to its practical results (material and spiritual products).

6) Regularity and frequency of observed events: according to a number of the above parameters and according to the typical situations that they describe. Observation according to this plan allows you to better understand the object of observation.

WITHsociological document in sociology they call any information recorded in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic tape, photo, or film.

Almost all sociological research begins with document analysis. The documents contain great information potential.

Documents can be classified on a number of grounds:

According to the form of presentation, documents are divided into: statistical, containing data in numerical form; verbal, describing social phenomena and processes in the form of text;

in terms of overall importance - by official documents, of an “official nature” (minutes of meetings, documents economic bodies, CSB data, etc.); informal documents- public and personal documents containing free information about events occurring in society related to the personal life of a person or group of people (memoirs, personal letters, etc.);

According to the method of recording information, documents are divided into: written(handwritten and printed); iconographic(film, video, photographic documents, paintings, etc.; phonetic(recordings, magnetic recordings).

The most important source of sociological information are also documents specially created for research purposes: questionnaires, interview forms, tests, observation diaries, etc.

Documentary information is used by the sociologist at all stages of the study. The use of a particular document is determined by the problem, purpose, objectives of the study, as well as its availability.

In sociology, two methods of document analysis are used:

traditional(qualitative);

content analysis(formalized).

Traditional analysis includes procedures aimed at revealing the main content of the material being studied. It is based on a mechanism of understanding, which does not exclude the possibility of subjective interpretation of the material. Traditional analysis distinguishes between:

external analysis, showing the circumstances, purpose of its appearance and reliability;

internal analysis, aimed at identifying differences between factual and literary content, establishing the level of competence of the author and systematizing the information contained in the document.

The possibility of subjective interpretation of the material required a search for formalized methods, which resulted in the creation of content analysis.

Content analysis has a qualitative-quantitative nature of studying documents. The formalized analysis procedure begins with the identification of semantic units of analysis and units of counting. In a text, a semantic unit can be concepts (term, “name,” sign), theme, character (hero), message, judgment, situation, action. The units of account can be time (minutes of airtime), space (volume of text), frequency of occurrence of units of analysis, etc.

Non-quantitative content analysis is based on identifying the presence of a semantic unit in the content of the text.

Quantitative content analysis is based on the quantitative measurement of units of analysis.

Documentary in sociology refers to any information recorded in printed or handwritten text, on magnetic tape, on photo or film. In this sense, the concept of documentation differs from the commonly used one: we usually call official materials documents.

According to the method of recording information, they differ: handwritten and printed documents; recordings on magnetic tape. From the point of view of the intended purpose, materials that were selected by the researcher himself are highlighted.

Example: American sociologist W. Thomas and Polish F. Znaniecki studied the life of Polish emigrants in Europe and America using documents. They asked a Polish peasant to write an autobiography and received 300 pages of handwritten text from him. These documents are called target documents. Other documents, independent of the sociologist, are called cash. They usually constitute documentary information in sociological research.

According to the degree of personification, documents are divided into personal and impersonal.

Personal - individual accounting documents (library forms, questionnaires and forms certified by a signature), characteristics issued to a given person, letters, diaries, statements, memoirs.

Impersonal - statistical or event archives, press data, minutes of meetings. Depending on their status, documents are divided into official and unofficial.

Official - protocols, government materials, resolutions, statements, communiqués, transcripts of official meetings, state and departmental statistics, archives, etc., reporting. Informal - personal documents, as well as impersonal documents compiled by private citizens (for example, statistical generalizations made by another researcher based on his own observations).

A special group of documents is the media, newspapers, magazines, radio, television, cinema.

According to the source of information, documents are divided into primary and secondary. The primary one is direct observation. Secondary - processing of direct observation data, generalization or description based on primary sources.

You can also classify documents by content: for example, literary data, historical and scientific archives, archives of sociological research.

Polls - an indispensable method of obtaining information about the subjective world of people, their inclinations, motives of activity, opinions. A survey is an almost universal method. when taking proper precautions, allows you to get at least reliable information than during document examination or observation. Moreover, this information can be about anything. Even about things that cannot be seen or read.

Official surveys first appeared in England at the end of the 18th century, and in early XIX century in the USA. In France and Germany, the first surveys were conducted in 1848, in Belgium - 1868-1869. And then they began to actively spread.

The art of using this method is to know what to ask, how to ask, what questions to ask, and finally how to make sure the answers you get are trustworthy.

The researcher must first of all understand that it is not the “average respondent” who is participating in the survey, but a living, real person gifted with consciousness and self-awareness, who influences the sociologist as much as the sociologist influences him. Respondents are not impartial recorders of their knowledge and opinions, but living people who are not alien to any likes, preferences, fears, etc. Therefore, when they perceive questions, they cannot answer some of them due to lack of knowledge, and they do not want to answer others or answer insincerely.

Varieties survey. There are two large class survey methods: interviews and questionnaires.

An interview is a conversation conducted according to a specific plan, which involves direct contact between the interviewer and the respondent (interviewee), and the latter’s answers are recorded either by the interviewer (his assistant) or mechanically (on tape).

There are many types of interviews.

2) According to the technique of conducting - they are divided into free, non-standardized and formalized (as well as semi-standardized) interviews.

Free - a long conversation (several hours) without strictly detailing the questions, but according to a general program (“interview guide”). Such interviews are appropriate at the exploratory stage of a formative research design.

Standardized interviews, like formalized observation, require a detailed development of the entire procedure, including the general plan of the conversation, the sequence and design of questions, and options for possible answers.

3) Depending on the specifics of the procedure, the interview can be intensive (“clinical”, i.e. deep, sometimes lasting for hours) and focused on identifying a fairly narrow range of reactions of the interviewee. The purpose of a clinical interview is to obtain information about the internal motives, motivations, and inclinations of the interviewee, and a focused interview is to extract information about the subject’s reactions to a given influence. With its help, they study, for example, the extent to which a person reacts to individual components of information (from the mass press, lectures, etc.). Moreover, the text of the information is pre-processed by content analysis. In a focused interview, they strive to determine which semantic units of text analysis are in the center of attention of the respondents, which ones are on the periphery, and which ones do not remain in memory at all.

4) So-called undirected interviews are “therapeutic” in nature. The initiative for the flow of the conversation here belongs to the respondent himself; the interviewer only helps him “pour out his soul.”

5) Finally, according to the method of organization, interviews are divided into group and individual. The first are used relatively rarely; this is a planned conversation, during which the researcher strives to provoke discussion in the group. The methodology for holding reader conferences resembles this procedure. Telephone interviews are used to quickly probe opinions.

Questionnaire survey. This method involves a strictly fixed order, content and form of questions, a clear indication of the answer methods, and they are registered by the respondent either alone (correspondence survey) or in the presence of the questionnaire (direct survey).

Questionnaire surveys are classified primarily by the content and design of the questions asked. There are open surveys when respondents express themselves in a free form. In a closed questionnaire, all answer options are provided in advance. Semi-closed questionnaires combine both procedures. A probe or express survey is used in public opinion surveys and contains only 3-4 points of basic information plus several points related to the demographic and social characteristics of the respondents. Such questionnaires resemble sheets of national referendums. A survey by mail is distinguished from an on-site survey: in the first case, the questionnaire is expected to be returned by prepaid postage; in the second, the questionnaire is collected by the questionnaire itself. Group questioning differs from individual questioning. In the first case, up to 30-40 people are surveyed at once: the surveyor gathers the respondents, instructs them and leaves them to fill out the questionnaires; in the second, he addresses each respondent individually. Organizing a “distribution” survey, including surveys at the place of residence, is naturally more labor-intensive than, for example, surveys through the press, which are also widely used in our and foreign practice. However, the latter are not representative of many groups of the population, so they can rather be attributed to methods for studying the public opinion of readers of these publications.

Finally, when classifying questionnaires, numerous criteria related to the topic of surveys are also used: event questionnaires, questionnaires to clarify value orientations, statistical questionnaires (in population censuses), timing of daily time budgets, etc.

When conducting surveys, we must not forget that with their help, subjective opinions and assessments are revealed, which are subject to fluctuations, the influence of survey conditions and other circumstances. To minimize data distortion associated with these factors, any variety of survey methods should be conducted within a short time frame. You cannot extend the survey for a long time, since by the end of the survey external circumstances may change, and information about its conduct will be transmitted by respondents to each other with any comments, and these judgments will influence the nature of the answers of those who later become respondents. Regardless of whether we use an interview or a questionnaire, most of the problems associated with the reliability of information are common to them.

In order for a questionnaire survey to be more effective, it is necessary to follow a number of rules that help to correctly set the course of the survey and reduce the number of errors during the study. The questions addressed to the respondents are not isolated - they are links of one chain, and like links, each of them is connected with the previous and subsequent ones (L.S. Vygodsky called this relationship “the influence of meanings”). A questionnaire is not a mechanical sequence of questions that can be placed in it as desired or as convenient for the researcher, but a special whole. It has its own properties that cannot be reduced to a simple sum of the properties of the individual issues that make it up.

At the very beginning, simple questions are asked, and not according to the researcher’s logic contained in the program, so as not to bombard the respondent with serious questions right away, but to allow him to get comfortable with the questionnaire and gradually move from simple to more complex (funnel rule). Radiation effect - when all the questions are logically interconnected and logically narrow the topic, the respondent has a certain attitude according to which he will answer them - this influence of the question is called the radiation effect or the echo effect and it manifests itself in the fact that the previous question or questions direct the respondents' train of thought in a certain direction, create a certain mini-system of coordinates, within the framework of which a very specific answer is formed or selected. Sociological methodology is “built” into a system of knowledge of varying degrees of generality, and its highest levels set certain conceptual boundaries and the logic of building connections between the leading concepts of the lower level. The methodological problem lies in the division of sociology into fundamental and applied. The choice is determined by the object of research, the degree of its problematic complexity and relevance.

4. The problems of sociological research in medical science and in the health care system are interconnected with the natural growing interest in the sociology of medicine in modern domestic science. This interest is determined by the fact that within its framework a sociological understanding of the state of the health care system can be carried out, as the most important sphere of society and its social institutions, the role and place of medicine, healthcare, the doctor and the patient.

In the context of transformations of the social formation and related social changes, including in health care policy, it is very important to consider the ongoing processes of modernization of health care as a social institution in the context of changes in political, economic, sociocultural and other factors, i.e. it is necessary to take into account in a timely manner not only the impact of changing conditions on a person, but also a possible range of reactions - social actions and their consequences on the development of medical science and education, organization medical care, changes in the mobility of the population and the medical-industrial complex of the country as a whole. It should be noted that the Russian sociology of medicine has the necessary potential for this. Some domestic research and development carried out over the past decades are comparable to the world level. In terms of the formulation of tasks and the proposed methods for their implementation, they correspond to the current level of research in this area, carried out in European countries and the USA. However, this is the external side of the phenomenon. In fact, the increasing mutual influence of medicine and sociology is apparently the result of a change in the social paradigm of health care, which in modern post-industrial society is becoming completely different.

In the XVIII - XIX centuries. doctors were mainly faced with acute illnesses, often infectious in nature and threatening the lives of patients. The leading causes of death, for example in 1900, were influenza, pneumonia, tuberculosis, while at the end of the 20th century. the main ones were heart disease, malignant neoplasms, cerebral vascular lesions and accidents. Other causes of morbidity in the 20th century. associated with the aging population and lifestyle changes.

In the second half of the 20th century. Physicians have already begun to encounter primarily long-term, chronic disorders that interfere with the patient's optimal social functioning.

The changing nature of pathology has given rise to a new concept in sociology and clinical medicine - “holistic medicine”, in which microorganisms began to replace stress as the main etiological factor, and the concept of “treatment” is increasingly being replaced by the concepts of “rehabilitation” and “social security”. As a result, general practitioners have a need for medical and sociological knowledge, since the existing competence in the physiological, chemical and biological aspects of the disease is no longer sufficient without additional information.

Since the sociology of medicine is interested in the holistic personality in the context of its medical and social environment, it can make an important contribution to medical perception and understanding of the problem of illness in modern society. In the new socio-economic conditions, the importance and necessity of giving a new impetus to the domestic sociology of medicine becomes obvious. Unfortunately, traditionally the reasons for the lag in the sociology of medicine are persistently seen not where they exist (for example, incomplete scientific competence), but in the insufficient practical usefulness of ongoing medical and sociological research. These guidelines now and then break through into the official medical press, for example, in the form of demands that doctors be taught not sociological theories, but more practical skills. With such an attitude (especially in market realities), Russian healthcare will quickly begin to turn into a consumer of Western medical technologies.

The task of medical and sociological systematization of various approaches developed in the course of research into problems of medicine, healthcare, medical education and science is complex, but extremely relevant for the development of science.

Knowledge of approaches and mastery of the methodological tools of medical and sociological research are ultimately necessary for a successful analysis of the prospects for the development of modern Russian medicine, healthcare, medical science and education. It is these analytical capabilities that primarily determine the relevance of the sociology of medicine as a scientific discipline, because its immediate goal is to present detailed theoretical and empirical descriptions of the problems of health, medicine and healthcare in Russia, naturally, in comparison with historical experience and similar systems of other countries and to determine prospects their development.

Meanwhile, the existing methodology for researching medical and sociological phenomena and processes requires serious revision. The subject of the sociology of medicine is defined in them only phenomenologically, through a list of topics studied, such as, for example, ecology and etiology of diseases, healthy image life, the attitude of the population to medical care, etc. There is still no holistic view of the content of the subject of the sociology of medicine, a one-sided picture of the reflection of phenomena (materialistic) prevails, and even, moreover, debates continue about the legitimacy of this name of a scientific discipline and educational subject. The need for deep generalizations in the field of social medicine is recognized not only by sociologists, but also by doctors. lately On the pages of the Russian press there is a lively discussion on many fundamental issues in the theory of public health. Many participants in the discussion, concerned about the state of affairs in this area, note that over the last quarter of the 20th century. the study of social problems of health care has acquired a medical-sociological character, and empirical research has significantly strengthened its theoretical position. General approach to the sociology of medicine often comes down to the following: the basic categories of sociology are taken and filled with one or another medical and social content. It is hardly possible and hardly advisable to completely abandon such medical-sociological reengineering of the basic concepts of sociology. However, one must understand that this approach, which considers the sociology of medicine as a practical application of sociological theories, ultimately replaces the subject of the sociology of medicine. It has its own subject area and is not limited to political and economic theories of the sociology of society. In the process of applying sociological concepts to the field of health, it has developed its own logic and its own models, which must be highlighted and described.

Modern methods of medical and sociological knowledge strive to take into account all the achievements of social and humanitarian knowledge, including taking into account the achievements of computer science, cybernetics, synergetics, systems theory, catastrophe theory, which have significantly enriched all sciences. Most methods of the sociology of medicine are tools of theoretical and empirical research.

In presenting the sociology of medicine as a research process, we strive to follow the actual medical-sociological logic of the subject and the construction of a medical-sociological model of healthcare. This approach is based on the methodology of analyzing institutional changes. By institutional analysis in the sociology of medicine, we mean the analysis of the health care system based on the ideas of the traditional sociological understanding of medicine and healthcare, both social institutions of society, and the latest view of social institutions as the main tools of any specific social interaction, which allows us to obtain fundamental results in modern institutional economics, We believe that the application of the methodology for analyzing institutional changes in the sociology of medicine is essentially a change in its scientific paradigm. The development of the methodology of institutional analysis in the sociology of medicine in the future can lead to closer integration of medical-sociological and socio-economic descriptions of the processes of historical evolution of the complex relationships between anthropological, biocentric, psychoanalytic, gender, economic, sociological and political points of view on the formation of models of medicine and healthcare.

review questions

What types of sociological research are there to obtain information?

Talk about the structure of sociological research: definition, stages, main types, program.

What is a sampling method? Types of sampling?

How to draw up a working plan for a sociological study?

Talk about the methods of surveying respondents: the questionnaire method and the requirements for conducting a survey.

Talk about the interview method: types of interviews.

Talk about the methods of sociological research: observation, experiment, document analysis.

Features of the methodology and practice of sociological research in the healthcare system and medical science.

Sociology Final Test Options

I. True (false) “+” or “-”.

1. The inductive research method is used in sociology much more often than the deductive one.

2. European schools of sociology are distinguished by a bias towards theoretical sociology, and American ones - towards applied sociological research.

3. A social institution is a stable set of formal and informal rules, principles, norms, guidelines that regulate various spheres of human activity.

4. Industrial society is usually called traditional.

5. Social stratification should be understood as structurally regulated inequality, in which people are ranked in accordance with the social significance that social roles and various activities have.

6. In sociology, preventive and specific mobility are distinguished.

7. In the 90s of the 20th century in Russia, the process of “erosion” of the middle social strata proceeded much faster than the formation of the “middle” class.

8. In the conditions of modern Russia, students are a marginal group, whose political weight significantly exceeds the share of this group in the country's population.

9. A family based not only on marriage, but also on consanguinity is called nuclear.

10. A family consisting of a husband, wife and their children is called nuclear.

11. From four options choose one.

1. The founder of sociology is:

a) O. Comte, b) G. Hegel, c) A. Toynbee, d) Socrates.

2. The classic of the “sociological school” is:

a) F. Feuerbach, b) Fichte, c) F. Bacon, d) E. Durkheim.

3. The main types of sociological research are:

a) reconnaissance and descriptive, b) reconnaissance and epistemological, c) descriptive and limiting, d) pilot and selective.

4. The basic elements of society do not include:

a) social institutions and organizations, b) social norms and values,

c) social connections and actions, d) social ideas and expectations.

5. In sociology, the division of societies into two types is widely used: a) traditional and industrial, b) traditional and developed, c) industrial and ethnic, d) socialist and capitalist.

6. The training of low-qualified (illiterate) specialists in universities is a function that can be designated as:

a) obvious function, b) obvious dysfunction, c) latent function, d) latent dysfunction.

7. Is not one of the main three interrelated elements of the social structure of society:

a) normal, b) social status, c) social role, d) social goals.

8. What status socially characterizes a person who is:

a) father of the family, b) philatelist, c) member of the LDPR, d) doctor.

9. The movement of people from one social group to another, their advancement to positions of higher prestige, income and power, or movement to lower hierarchical positions is:

a) social stratification, b) migration, c) marginalization, d) social mobility.

10. According to Durkheim, the reason for the “solidarity of citizens in society”:

a) the need for protection and freedom, b) a common religion,

c) division of labor, d) common national interests.