Taxation measurements and measuring instruments. Removing trees to stumps manually Removing self-seeding tree and shrub species
Taxation measurements and measuring instruments
Units of measurement in forest taxation.
The following units of measurement are accepted in forest taxation: to determine the length of ridges, logs, canes and the height of trees - meter (m); diameter - centimeter (cm); cross-sectional area of tree trunks and logs - square centimeter and square meter(cm2, m2); volume - cubic meter (m3); weight - kilogram (kg); growing stock - cubic meter (m3); growth in volume is a cubic meter, in thickness - a centimeter and in height - a meter. The amount of harvested wood is taken into account in dense and folded
cubic meters
(sq. m3 and sq. m3), and the amount of standing wood is only in dense cubic meters. Folded cubic meters take into account firewood, brushwood and small business assortments (pulpwood, ore stands, etc.), while the measurement includes, in addition to wood, the gaps formed between individual segments; in dense ones - only wood of the appropriate assortments without gaps and voids. Roulette. To measure the length of felled trees,
various materials
Measurements using a tape measure are made by two workers: one takes the end of the tape measure with the ring, the second remains with the case. The number located at the exit of the tape from the case shows the length of the line being measured. If the measurement is carried out by one person, then the ring must be put on an object at the beginning of the line being measured (at the zero of the tape measure). When unfolding the tape measure, care must be taken to avoid tearing the tape from the axis, and when wrapping it, avoid twisting, as this accelerates its wear and creates the possibility of tears. It is recommended to use the tape measure in dry weather; in damp weather it must be dried before rolling. A tape measure with wet tape wrapped around it quickly fails.
The disadvantage of a tape measure is that it stretches over time and therefore can give incorrect results. To eliminate this drawback, it is made of two layers with a thin copper wire sandwiched between the layers. In both cases, the length of the tape measure must be checked in order to make appropriate adjustments. performing work, requiring special precision. Sometimes tape measures are made of steel: they do not stretch, but when rolled up they often break, the divisions on them are difficult to see, and, in addition, they are much heavier than linen ones.
If treated with care, a linen tape measure can last for several years.
Most often, the first centimeters of the tape and the place where the ring is attached wear out on a tape measure, but this can be easily fixed by sewing on the tape from an old tape measure.
Tape measures can also be used to measure small lines in areas such as construction sites.
Measuring pole, folding meter. You can also measure the length of felled trees and various timber products with a measuring pole and a folding meter. Especially when measuring woodpiles, it is convenient to use a measuring pole, which can be made from a thin straight. The felled tree is well dried and then planed, giving it a square or rectangular shape of a bar with a cross section of (2-3) X (3-5) cm. The length of the pole should be commensurate with the length of the most common woodpiles. The most convenient for work are poles 2-3 m long. On the manufactured pole, notches are made with a knife or an ax every 10 cm, with the extreme division divided into centimeters. For clarity, lines are drawn along the bottom of the 1st notch with a red pencil, 0.5 - with a blue pencil, along the bottom of 10 and 1 - cm - with black. In addition, numbers indicating the length in meters are written in red pencil. For strength, the ends of the pole can be covered with metal plates or covered with tin.
The pole is placed horizontally on the woodpile and the length is measured, then, placing it against the woodpile, the height and, finally, the length of the logs.
By multiplying the resulting values, the volume of the woodpile in folded cubic meters is obtained. For example, with a woodpile length of 4 and a height of 2 m, the length of the logs is 0.5 m, the volume of the woodpile is 4X2X0.5 = 4 approx. m3.
A folding meter can be metal or wood. Small divisions (up to 1 mm) are applied on one side of it, and larger divisions (up to 1 or 0.5 cm) are applied on the second side. The first side is used for measurements for work that requires great accuracy (for example, research), and the second for household work. The device of a folding meter is very simple: it consists of six plates fastened with pins. When folded, it is very portable and fits easily in your pocket. To avoid easy breakage, it must be used very carefully (a wooden meter is especially fragile). Sometimes measuring meters are made from a single elastic steel strip placed in a small flat round metal case, reminiscent of a miniature tape measure. Measuring tape. For measuring large lines on the ground at different housekeeping work, larger on meter and half meter divisions. Sometimes the numbers on meter plaques are 1, 2, 3, etc. For ease of carrying and storage, the tape is wound on an iron ring between the walls of four double-sided protrusions attached to it, which, after winding the tape, are screwed in. These screws and handles, which are wider than the band and the holes between the tabs, keep the band from slipping off the ring. Each ribbon is accompanied by a set of 11 sharp pegs 40-50 cm long with rings on top, made of thick iron wire. The rings of the pegs are put on a large iron ring and stored and transported in this form.
During the work, two workers unwind the tape and carefully pull it in the direction of the measured and hung line. At the beginning of the line being measured, one worker, having stuck a peg into the ground, applies the tape to it with a zero, and the other, facing the first and slightly shaking and stretching the tape, sticks a second peg into the ground opposite the mark on the tape showing its end - 20 m. Then both go with the tape forward along the measured line. Having reached the second peg stuck in the ground, the first worker stops the second and aligns the beginning of the tape with the placed peg; the second one turns to face him again and places the next peg, and the first one at this time takes the second peg out of the ground and puts it on the ring on which the first peg was put; the second peg means that one measurement has been taken, i.e. the measured distance is 20 m. These processes are repeated until the entire line has been measured.
When measuring lines over 200 m, a small wooden stake is driven in at the site of every 11th peg; the first worker passes all 10 pegs to the second, and the measurement continues. To avoid losing pegs, and hence incorrect counting, it is necessary to periodically check their availability.
When the worker reaches the end of the line being measured, he pulls the tape from the last peg to the pole placed at the end of the line and counts meters and decimeters. Based on the number of wooden stakes and iron pegs (minus one) driven into the ground by the worker, as well as the meters and decimeters measured at the last measurement of the tape, the total length of the measured line is determined.
Example. If 4 wooden stakes are driven into the ground, the worker has 9 pegs left, and 7 m and 4 dm are measured on the last tape, then the length of the measured line is (4X200) + (8X20) +7.4 m = 967.4 m.
Measuring fork.
To measure the thickness (diameter) of felled and growing trees, as well as various round timber, a forestry fork is used. It is the main tool for taxation work. There are a lot of designs of measuring forks. The simplest of them consists of a thick ruler up to 1 m long with divisions. At one end attached at right angles wooden block(fixed leg) about 0.5 m long, a second block of the same size (movable leg) is put through a hole made in it onto a ruler from the other end. It should move freely on the ruler and at the same time always be parallel to the first block.
Such a measuring fork has the disadvantage that with frequent use, the movable leg soon becomes loose and loses its position perpendicular to the ruler. In addition, in wet weather it swells, which delays the movement of the movable leg, and in dry weather it shrinks, as a result of which the movements of the movable leg become excessively free. All this causes errors in measurements. To eliminate this drawback, the cutout in the movable leg must be large sizes than the cross section of the ruler; smooth movement of the movable leg in any weather and preservation of perpendicularity are ensured by the use of various devices - screws, springs, rollers, wedges, etc.
When manufacturing a measuring fork, the following requirements must be met: a right angle between the ruler and the fixed leg; easy and smooth sliding along the line of the movable leg, parallel to the fixed leg;
the length of the legs is somewhat greater than half the thickness of large measured trunks and timber; the ends of the legs are quite thin for ease of inserting a fork under a lying tree; correct and clear divisions on the measuring ruler; contact along the entire length of the internal planes of the legs when fully approaching; light weight of the fork and ease of handling.
To reduce the contacting surfaces on the wide sides of the ruler, notches 1 mm deep were made for divisions of 0.5 cm with numbers every 2 cm, starting from zero on one side for more accurate measurements, on the other - 1 cm with numbers every 4 cm for making rounded calculations in steps of thickness 4 cm. In such recalculations and measurements, fractions less than half of the thickness step are discarded, and more than half are taken as whole numbers. To save the measurer from the need to round and speed up the calculation, rounded divisions are applied to the ruler: the first step of thickness (4 cm) is marked at half (2 cm), and subsequent divisions are applied and marked, counting from the first, in the usual order (every 4 cm) , as a result of which the 8 cm mark is placed where there should actually be 6 cm, etc. With this designation of divisions, the measurer always counts the measured diameter according to the last division, which he sees to the left of the movable leg of the measuring fork and which corresponds to the given diameter with the specified degree of rounding.
Rice. 2. Standard wooden measuring fork (I) and measurement with it (II): a - side for precise measurements; b - for measurements in 4 cm thickness steps; c - incorrect; r - correct; 1 - barrel diameter, 2 - chord
Example. The movable leg goes beyond the number 12 by one division, therefore, the measurer marks the diameter as 12 cm, although it is equal to 2 + 8 + 1 = 11 cm. With rounding, it is equal to 12 cm even if the movable leg goes beyond the number 12 by 3 divisions (2 +8+3=13 cm or rounded 12 cm), i.e. until the movable leg reaches the number 16.
In this way, trees are counted in 4-cm thickness steps. As a result of rounding, errors are possible, but when counting a large number of trees, these errors are ultimately reduced to a minimum, which is quite acceptable for forestry practice. When measuring a small number of trees and various round timber, you should use the back of the measuring fork, which gives results without rounding with an accuracy of 0.5 cm.
When using a measuring fork, you must adhere to the following rules: apply a ruler to the barrel and smoothly, without pressure, place the barrel between the movable and fixed legs, taking into account the ability of the legs to spring, as a result of which pinching the barrel with force between them or the ends of the legs can give reduced results due to measuring only the chord and not the diameter (see Fig. 2); counting on a ruler must be carried out before removing the measuring fork from the tree; when measuring thickness standing tree the measurement site should be cleared of mosses and lichens;
to obtain the most accurate results, you should measure not one diameter of the trunk (or part of it), but two mutually perpendicular diameters or the largest and smallest diameters and take the average value, since the trunk, as a rule, is not round.
Measuring bracket. The thickness of the log in the upper section can be determined with a measuring bracket (Fig. 3). To make it, take a well-dried wooden block 50-80 cm long and plan a ruler out of it
rectangular section
ZOX" 10 mm. One end is rounded and given the shape of a handle, and a metal plate with a width equal to its thickness is nailed to the other. The plate is bent onto a ruler on one side, and on the other remains in the form of a protrusion-hook 1.0-1 long .5 cm, which serves to ensure that when applying a measuring clamp to a cut of a log, the ruler does not slip and its beginning coincides with the edge of the cut (see Fig. 3) divisions are applied on both sides of the ruler in the direction from the protrusion of the hook to the handle in centimeters. and half centimeters with numbers every 2 or 5 cm. Every 10 cm is marked with a red pencil, the rest with a black pencil.
Rice. 3. Measuring bracket
To determine the height of a standing tree, many different instruments and devices are used. The simplest and most accessible altimeter is a regular forest measuring stick (Fig. 4, a). When using it as an altimeter, a plumb line is attached approximately 6-8 cm from the end, and a zero line is marked on the movable leg at the same distance from the end, from which centimeter and half-centimeter divisions are applied in both directions. When combining the legs, the point of attachment of the plumb line on the fixed leg and the zero division on the movable leg must coincide. For ease of readings when crossing them with a plumb line, divisions on a movable leg are applied at an obtuse angle to the ruler of the measuring fork.
When taking measurements, the measurer moves away approximately at a distance equal to the height of the tree, so that its top is clearly visible from this point.
The distance from the tree to the measurer is accurately measured with a tape measure; then the movable leg is moved away from the fixed one by the number of centimeters corresponding to the number of meters to the measurer, and the movable leg is secured with a screw; along the inner edge of the fixed leg, sight the top of the tree and count the centimeters along the plumb line to the movable leg. The number of centimeters shown by the plumb line, replaced by meters, plus the average height of a person (to the eyes), taken as 1.5 m, is equal to the height of the tree. The measuring fork allows you to measure trees with an accuracy of approximately ±0.5 m.
Example 1. The plumb line crossed the movable leg by 23.5 cm. The height of the tree is 23.5-4-1.5 = 25 m. The measurement is correct if the tree grows on level ground, and if on a slope below the measurer, then first you need to sight at the top of the tree and make a plumb line reading in centimeters, then at the base and make the same reading. In this case, the plumb line passes on the other side of the zero of the movable leg, i.e., in the direction of its end.
By summing both readings, we get a number equal to the height of the tree in meters. To obtain the height of a tree located above the measurer, the result of the second reading must be subtracted from the first. The tablet allows you to carry it in your pocket (see Fig. 4, b).
Its surface is divided by lines parallel to the edges into a number of small squares. A grid of squares can be pre-drawn in ink on parchment paper and carefully pasted onto a board. A plumb line is attached in the upper right corner at a distance of approximately 3-4 cm from the edge at point E.
Divisions are written along edges BD and CD: along edge BD from top to bottom, and along edge CD to the left and right of line EO, crossing the board from top to bottom through the point of attachment of the plumb line E. Rice. 4. Tools for measuring tree height: a - measuring fork; o - altimeter board; c - pendulum altimeter To determine the height of a tree, use such a board to measure the distance from the point of sight to the tree (as when working with a measuring fork) and, based on the number of meters obtained, count the same number of squares from top to bottom along the edge. The line intersected at the end of the measurement, parallel to the base of the plank, serves to measure the height of the tree being measured. Then they sight along the edge of the LV to the top of the tree. When the plumb line has calmed down, hold it with your hand and determine the number of squares at the point of intersection of the plumb line with the previously found one.
parallel line
(parts of the squares are determined by eye). This number plus 1.5 m (the height of a person up to the eyes) is the height of the tree. Example. The distance from the sighting point to the tree is 18 m. Therefore, to measure the height of the tree being measured, a line parallel to the base and passing through the number 18 along the edge BD (18 squares from top to bottom) is used. Let’s assume that the plumb line crossed this line by 15.5 squares, then the height of the tree is 15.5 + 1.5 = 17 m. If the measuring location is uneven, the height of the tree is determined in the same way as when working with a measuring fork; for readings when sighting at the base of a tree, when it is below the observer, it serves
Of the special altimeters, the easiest to use and quite reliable in terms of measurement accuracy is the pendulum altimeter, proposed in 1949 by taxi operator N.I. Makarov (see Fig. 4, c). This is a thin metal plate, resembling a sector of a circle with a radius of 8-10 cm in shape. At some distance from the corner of the sector, a metal pendulum is suspended, the sleeve of which on the outside ends with a special head - a button that presses the pendulum to the plate, and on the inside it has a nut, pressure on which the pendulum begins to move. There are two division scales on the arc of the sector: the upper one - for counting the height of the tree when moving away from it at a distance of 10 m, the lower one - at 20 m. The scales make it possible to obtain the height of the tree without preliminary calculations when moving away for sighting at 10 and 20 m. To the side plate on which the pendulum is attached, a sighting tube is soldered with a socket for viewing on one side and with a small round hole for sighting at the top and base of the tree on the other.
The height of the tree is determined as follows. If the height does not exceed 15 m, they move away from it by 10 m, and if it approaches 20 m, then by 20 m. Then right hand take the altimeter, covering thumb arc notch, and with the index sighting tube, point the latter at the top of the tree^ and press index finger left hand on the nut of the pendulum, which begins to swing freely; Having allowed it to calm down, the nut is smoothly released, as a result of which the pendulum is pressed against the plate in a vertical position. After this, the height of the tree is measured using one of the division scales: 10 or 20, respectively. If the height of the tree, by preliminary determination, is more than 25 m, they move away 30 m and, after sighting at its height, take readings on both scales. Then the obtained readings are summed up and 1.5 m are added, resulting in the height of the measured tree.
Example 1. When measuring a tree from a distance of 10 m, a reading on the 10th scale of 9.5 m was obtained. Therefore, the height of the tree is 9.5 + 1.5 = 11 m.
Example 2. When measuring a tree from a distance of 20 m, a reading on the 20th scale of 17 m was obtained. Therefore, the height of the tree is 17 + 1.5 = 18.5 m.
Example 3. When measuring a tree from a distance of 30 m, a reading of 9 m was obtained on the 10th scale and 18 m on the 20th scale. Therefore, the height of the tree is 9+18+1.5 = 28.5 m.
If the tree grows on uneven terrain, then you need to sight 2 times: at the top and at the base (as when working with a measuring fork). A more accurate determination of tree height is obtained by measuring from a distance closer to their actual height. In this case, the reading obtained on the upper scale is divided by 10 and multiplied by the distance from the tree to the point from which the sighting was made.
Example. Sighting was carried out from a distance of 14 m; a reading of 11 m was obtained on the upper scale. Therefore, the height of the tree
X14+1.5=16.9 m.
Before starting work, it is necessary to check the serviceability of the altimeter. In a horizontal position (along the spirit level), the pendulum arrow should point to the zero division. When the nut is pressed, the pendulum should swing freely, and when lowered, it should immediately stop moving, since it is pressed against the plate.
Incremental drill.
To determine the growth of a tree in thickness, a small tool called an incremental drill is used (Fig. 5). This instrument consists of a metal tube internal diameter 5-7 mm. Drills come in different lengths, but usually 12 cm. One end of the tube is somewhat narrowed and has sharp edges with an external screw (also sharp) thread, the other has a quadrangular cross-section and flat edges. The quadrangular end of the tube is tightly inserted into another tube (hollow, unscrewable, metal), which is both a handle and a case for the instrument.
Before work, the thick bark of the tree must be cleaned somewhat, but not to the point of wood. Then, perpendicular to the surface of the barrel, a drill is screwed in to the desired depth, having first inserted a lance-shaped steel serrated with one side plate - a brush, with the teeth of which a column of wood is clamped in a drill and, together with it, is removed from the tree. You must remove the drill very carefully so as not to break this column, since the thickness of the annual layers is also measured on it using a brush, on back side which is marked with divisions in millimeters and centimeters. After work, the drill handle is unscrewed and a tube with a screw thread and a brush inserted into it is placed in it. In this form, the drill is convenient to carry around the forest.
Stump tar– this is the naturally resinous core part of stumps and roots coniferous species. Osmol serves as a raw material for turpentine and rosin production. Our country produces and processes stump resin from Scots pine and cedar pine.
The resources of stump resin are determined based on the number and diameters of stumps, using regional reference tables.
Using the initial data in Appendix 1 and the taxation characteristics of the areas presented in Table. 2.17, as well as from the values of the average diameter and number of osmol stumps per 1 hectare (Table 2.18), the stock of stump osmol per 1 ha and the total area of the allotment are determined (Table 2.19).
Table 2.17
Taxation characteristics of pine stands allocated for felling
| No. | Issue no. | S, ha | Compound | D, cm | Bonitet | Completeness | Year of felling | |
| 5,2 | 6S2E2B | 0,6 | ||||||
| 3,4 | 7S3B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 1,2 | 6S2B1E1Os | 0,6 | ||||||
| 6,8 | 6S3B1Os | 0,5 | ||||||
| 2,2 | 7S2B1Os | 0,5 | ||||||
| 4,1 | 6S4B | 0,4 | ||||||
| 5,0 | 6S1E3B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 3,8 | 7S1E2B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 2,9 | 8S2B | 0,6 | ||||||
| 4,2 | 8S1E1B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 2,4 | 7S3B | 0,6 | ||||||
| 6,3 | 6S2E2B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 2,2 | 8S2B | 0,4 | ||||||
| 6,4 | 7S1E1B1Os | 0,6 | ||||||
| 3,3 | 7S3B | 0,5 |
When determining the number of stumps, it is necessary to take into account the share of pine in the forest stand formula by multiplying by the participation coefficient. Also, the number of tar stumps depends on the age of felling and is expressed by the following ratio:
Table 2.18
Determination of the average diameter and number of stumps per 1 hectare, depending on the quality class and completeness of pine plantations
| Quality class | Wed. D ancient, cm | Number of trunks (stumps) at fullness | Wed. D stumps, cm | ||||||
| 1,0 | 0,9 | 0,8 | 0,7 | 0,6 | 0,5 | 0,4 | |||
| II | |||||||||
| III | |||||||||
| IV | |||||||||
| V | |||||||||
Example. Determine the supply of stump resin with an average stump diameter of 28 cm and their number per 1 ha - 325 pcs.
The supply of stump resin according to the digits of numbers and the corresponding diameter will be: for three hundred - 17 cl. m 3 (the intersection of the number 3 in the quantity column and the “hundreds” column); for two dozen – 1 cl. m 3; for 5 units – 0. Accordingly, the supply of 325 stumps will be: 17+1+0=18 stumps. m 3.
Table 2.19
Determination of the supply of air resin
| Wed. D stumps, cm | Quantity | Wed. D stumps, cm | Quantity | Stock of stump resin, cl.m 3 by digits of numbers | |||||||
| thousand | hundreds | dec. | units | thousand | hundreds | dec. | units | ||||
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According to the table 2.20 is the mass of stump resin harvested from the allotment area at a given humidity, per 1 hectare.
Table 2.20
Converting the folded volume of air resin into weight indicators
Based on the indicator of the recency of felling, the ripeness classes of stump resin are determined for all sections, the characteristics of which are given in Table. 2.21 and the content of resinous substances per 1 ha of allotment in the total mass of raw materials is calculated according to table. 2.22 taking into account Appendix 19.
Table 2.21
Ripeness classes of stump tar
Table 2.22
| Ripeness class | TUM | |||||||
| Bors | Subors | |||||||
| dry | fresh | wet | raw | dry | fresh | wet | raw | |
| I | 9,8 | 10,5 | 7,1 | 6,5 | 10,2 | 11,2 | 7,6 | 5,8 |
| II | 16,4 | 16,9 | 11,9 | 10,8 | 16,2 | 15,5 | 11,5 | 10,2 |
| III | 20,5 | 19,4 | 16,5 | 14,2 | 19,8 | 18,5 | 16,7 | 15,8 |
| IV | 23,8 | 24,5 | 22,2 | 20,1 | 23,5 | 22,9 | 21,0 | 19,5 |
Knowing the area of the deposit, the supply of stump resin (cl. m 3 and kg) and the amount of resinous substances (kg) for all deposits are determined.
Based on the results of all calculations, the table is filled in. 2.23.
Table 2.23
Summary statement for determining the stock of stump resin and the amount of resinous substances
| No. | Issue no. | S, ha | Ripeness class | Stock of stump resin, cl. m 3 | Weight of air resin, kg | Amount of resinous substances, kg |
| 5,2 | ||||||
| 3,4 | ||||||
| 1,2 | ||||||
| 6,8 | ||||||
| 2,2 | ||||||
| 4,1 | ||||||
| 5,0 |
Tasks to complete practical work 2.10
1) Define average diameter stumps and their number for each section.
2) Determine the supply of stump resin (storage m 3 per 1 ha) for each allocation.
3) Find the mass of stump resin harvested from 1 hectare of each area.
4) Determine the content of resinous substances in the stump osmol (kg/ha) for each excrement.
5) Find the total supply of stump resin, its mass, and the amount of resinous substances for all excretions.
2.11. Calculation of logging waste resources and the dynamics of their formation throughout the year
An important direction at present is the more complete use of the logging fund and the reduction of wood losses during its harvesting and transportation. For various reasons, the logging fund allocated for felling is being developed and used extremely irrationally. The amount of wood loss and waste at all stages of production ranges from 1/3 to 1/2 of the total logging fund allocated for felling.
With the technology and logging technology currently used at forestry enterprises, waste is generated at the cutting area, loading point (upper warehouse) and timber warehouse.
Accountable logging waste includes twigs, branches and tops, fragments of trunks, waste from processing the dimensions of a cart, as well as residues from bucking logs into assortments (breakdowns, peaks).
In general, the volume of any wood waste V 0 T , can be determined by the formula:
Where Vc- volume of raw materials relative to which waste is determined, m 3 ; N- waste generation standard, %.
The volume of waste in the form of twigs, branches and tips at the cutting site and at the loading point is determined relative to the volume of wood removal. At a timber warehouse, the volume of exported wood, in particular the volume of bucking waste, is determined relative to the volume of wood to be bucked. The consolidated standard for the formation of logging waste, established by region, taking into account natural waste used as fertilizer and to strengthen skidding trails, is given in Table. 2.24.
Table 2.24
Consolidated standard for the generation of logging waste
| Region | Standard for the generation of logging waste, % of wood removal | |||
| Twigs, branches, tops on a growing tree | Decay of twigs, branches, during felling, skidding | Consolidated standard for logging waste suitable for use | ||
| Used to strengthen skidding ditches and further as fertilizer | Including used to strengthen dies | |||
| Northwestern region | 13,3 | 8,1 | 2,8 | 5,2 |
| central District | 12,2 | 7,7 | 3,4 | 4,5 |
| Povolzhsky district | 12,2 | 4,4 | - | 7,8 |
| North Caucasus region | 16,6 | 5,7 | - | 10,9 |
| Ural region | 14,4 | 10,2 | 5,0 | 4,2 |
| West Siberian region | 12,2 | 10,9 | 5,8 | 1,3 |
| East Siberian region | 13,3 | 10,1 | 5,3 | 3,2 |
| Far Eastern region | 15,5 | 11,8 | 6,2 | 3,7 |
The free average standard of logging waste suitable for use may vary depending on a number of factors. In summer, its value increases slightly (1.2 times), and in winter it decreases (up to 0.9 times). Its value is also adjusted depending on the degree of swampiness of the forest fund allocated for felling. When the swampiness of cutting areas is up to 20, up to 40, and up to 60%, correction factors equal to 0.8 are applied, respectively; 0.6 and 0.4.
The equipment and technology used have a significant impact on the amount of logging waste generated. For example, the loss of stem wood harvested by machine is approximately 1.6-1.8 times higher than when developing cutting areas using machine systems using gasoline-powered saws. Wood waste at the cutting site in the form of damaged logs and their fragments is taken into account in the volume of actual use. According to research by TsNIIME , the average standard for the use of stem wood relative to the volume of removal can be taken as an average of 6.4% (in winter - 6.65%, in summer - 6.16%). Standards for the use of waste from bringing the dimensions of a timber truck to the requirements for the transportation of goods by road common use can be taken as 4% - when transporting wood in logs, 9% - when transporting wood with trees (in summer - 10%, in winter - 8%). The standard for the generation of bucking waste in forests can be adopted as for timber warehouses (Table 2.26), increased by 30% due to worse working conditions.
For an informed choice and operation of machine systems that produce technological chips in the cutting area, it is important not only to know the total volume of waste, but also to take into account the dynamics of the formation of this waste throughout the year (by month, per shift).
Then, in general terms, the real annual volume of logging waste generated at the enterprise can be determined by the formula
(2.67)
Where V i- real volume of logging waste in i th month, m 3. In general, the value V i can be calculated using the formula
where is the annual volume of logging work of the enterprise, m 3; K i T And K i B- coefficients of unevenness, respectively, of skidding and removal of wood in i- month (Table 2.25), showing how the volume of a certain type of work in a particular month differs in comparison with the average monthly for the year; N ij - standard of use j-th type of logging waste in i-month, %.
For specific production conditions and the types of waste taken into account, formula (2.68) will take the form
Where N i 1 , N i 2 , N i 3 , N i 4 - standards, respectively, for the use of waste in the form of: twigs, branches, tips; trunk fragments; wood generated during processing of cart dimensions; detachments and visors; C s, C 3, C m- coefficients taking into account, respectively: the season of work; the degree of swampiness of cutting areas and the system of machines that harvest wood.
The replaceable volume of logging waste generated after final felling, in m3 in different months of the year, can be determined by the formula
Where npi- number of working days in i-th month; k cm i- shift ratio in i-th month.
The average shift volume of logging waste during the year is (2.7
Where n p number of working days per year; - shift ratio during the year.
Example(conditional figures): a logging enterprise with an annual production volume of 200 thousand m 3 is located in the Komi Republic and carries out transportation in assortments; harvesting is carried out by a system of machines using gasoline-powered saws; the number of working days by month, starting from January, is: 24, 23, 24, 21, 23, 26, 25, 26, 24, 24, 20.25; the shift coefficient in all months is 1; the degree of swampiness of cutting areas is 20%.
The volume of logging waste suitable for use for technological and fuel needs will include twigs, branches, tops, trunk fragments, loose ends and canopies.
The actual volume of logging waste generated in i th month, determined by formula (2.68), using the data: table. 2.24 ( N i 1, reduced for mmmmmmmmmm winter months by 0.9 times and increased for summer months by 1.2 times); table 2.25, variant ( K iT And K iB); standards for the use of damaged stem wood: N i 2=6.4% (in winter 6.65%, in summer 6.16%), as well as standards for the generation of bucking waste taken from table. 2.26 and increased by 30%.
Table 2.25
Monthly coefficients of unevenness of skidding K i T and wood removal K i B
| Months | Options | |||||||||||
| A | b | V | G | d | e | |||||||
| K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | |
| January | 1,15 | 1,18 | 1,22 | 1,41 | 1,28 | 1,73 | 1,08 | 1,12 | 1,10 | 1,15 | 1,13 | 1,20 |
| February | 1,30 | 1,33 | 1,28 | 1,39 | 1,32 | 1,72 | 1,04 | 1,12 | 1,20 | 1,25 | 1,16 | 1,23 |
| March | 1,38 | 1,41 | 1,33 | 1,40 | 1,66 | 2,01 | 1,21 | 1,25 | 1,30 | 1,35 | 1,28 | 1,28 |
| April | 0,95 | 0,69 | 0,83 | 0,76 | 0,88 | 0,87 | 0,98 | 1,00 | 1,00 | 0,60 | 0,95 | 0,73 |
| May | 0,77 | 0,64 | 0,74 | 0,70 | 0,61 | 0,46 | 0,82 | 0,80 | 0,70 | 0,80 | 0,84 | 0,93 |
| June | 1,00 | 0,92 | 0,95 | 1,00 | 0,72 | 0,63 | 0,96 | 1,01 | 0,90 | 0,90 | 0,95 | 1,05 |
| July | 0,95 | 0,99 | 0,92 | 0,90 | 0,78 | 0,63 | 0,94 | 0,98 | 0,90 | 0,95 | 0,90 | 0,87 |
| August | 0,92 | 0,99 | 0,94 | 0,98 | 0,87 | 0,67 | 0,92 | 0,92 | 0,90 | 1,00 | 0,92 | 0,98 |
| September | 0,91 | 0,88 | 0,87 | 0,72 | 0,86 | 0,60 | 1,00 | 0,94 | 0,95 | 1,00 | 0,91 | 0,93 |
| October | 0,77 | 0,89 | 0,87 | 0,64 | 0,89 | 0,51 | 1,00 | 0,95 | 0,90 | 0,95 | 0,96 | 0,96 |
| November | 0,90 | 1,02 | 0,98 | 1,00 | 0,91 | 0,85 | 0,99 | 0,92 | 0,95 | 0,90 | 0,97 | 0,91 |
| December | 1,00 | 1,06 | 1,07 | 1,10 | 1,16 | 1,30 | 1,06 | 0,99 | 1,10 | 1,15 | 1,04 | 1,03 |
Table 2.26
Standard for the generation of crosscutting waste
Then the volume of logging waste generated, for example, in January will be
and in August it will be equal
The volumes of logging waste for other months are determined similarly. Having summed up their values for all months (formula 2.67), we find the real annual volume of logging waste at the enterprise, equal to 19646 m 3.
By determining the monthly volumes of logging waste using formula (2.70), it is easy to obtain replacement volumes of logging waste in these months. For example, in August there will be a shift
waste
Having determined the monthly and shift volumes of logging waste, we build a graph of the dynamics of their formation throughout the year (Fig. 2.9) based on Appendix 1.
Rice. 2.9. Dynamics of logging waste formation
Tasks for practical work 2.11
1) Establish the types of waste generated at the cutting site and the area of their use.
2) Determine the real annual volume of logging waste.
4) Construct a graph of the dynamics of the formation of logging waste during the year.
When logging in winter, the yield of industrial greens decreases by 20%. Weight loss during 3-day storage of raw materials is 10% for coniferous species, 30% for deciduous species.
Stump wood. The stumps and roots of some coniferous trees are used to obtain stump tar as a valuable raw material for rosin extraction production. In some forest-deficient areas they are used as fuel. Study of taxation properties and features of air resin, development of normative reference data for accounting and inventory of raw materials of this forest product for Lately conducted by A.A. Smolenkov (1986) and A.P. Seryakov (1987).
Stump resin prepared by uprooting or explosive methods is placed in dense heaps rectangular shape. It is accounted for in warehouse m3. Depending on the diameter of the core part of the stumps, the coefficient of woodiness of the heaps increases in the range of tree thickness steps of 16...60 cm from 0.45 to 0.49. For production taxation of osmoleous raw materials in clearings, its value is taken equal to
A similar accounting method can also be used when estimating stocks of harvested stumps. To convert the volume into a dense measure, an average wood density coefficient of 0.5 is used.
More accurate data on the full wood content of the named types of forest products can be found by xylometric or weight methods.
3.5. Taxation of lumber
IN As a result of longitudinal sawing of logs, lumber is obtained, divided according to the cross-sectional shape into plates (cut into two symmetrical parts), quarters (cut into four symmetrical parts), beams, beams, boards, sleepers and slabs. When they are taxed at Sawmills and woodworking enterprises use automated computer calculations.
Beams are lumber more than 10 cm wide and thick. Based on the number of sawn sides, they are divided into two-, three- and four-edge. In turn, four-edged beams can be sharp-edged or blunt-edged (ash-shaped) in cross-sectional shape.
Bars are lumber, the thickness of which does not exceed 10 cm, and the width is no more than double their thickness.
The boards are also prepared with a thickness of no more than 10 cm, but their width is two or more times greater than the thickness. The wide sides of boards and bars are called faces, the narrow sides are called edges, and the corners are called ribs.
Lumber can be edged if both edges have been sawn at least half the length, and unedged - if there is no cut or it is less than half the length. In addition, a distinction is made between clean-cut lumber, which is obtained by completely cutting the edge. The unsawed parts of the edge are called wane, and the corresponding boards and beams are called wane.
A sleeper is a piece of log of a certain cross-sectional profile 2.7 m long for a regular gauge railway and 2.5 m - for narrow. According to the cross-sectional profile, two categories of sleepers are distinguished: A – sawn on four sides; B – sawn on both sides. Depending on the thickness and size of the beds, sleepers are divided into five types.
Transfer bars are used for laying under railway track in places of turnouts. They come in five types for wide gauge, and four for narrow gauge. Assortment length 2.75...5.5 m with gradation
Croaker is a cut outer part logs, the other surface of which remains untreated.
Depending on the quality of the wood, lumber from softwood is divided into four grades, and lumber from hardwood - into three grades. Wide gauge sleepers are divided into two grades. For narrow gauge sleepers such differentiation is not provided.
The volumes of plates and quarters are determined using special tables. In their absence, according to the tables of GOST 2708-75, the cubic capacity of the taxed assortments is determined by the diameter in the upper cut and the length of the logs by a corresponding decrease in volume.
The volumes of pointed beams, whetstones and clear boards are calculated by multiplying their width a by thickness b and length l using the formula
where t is the length of the wane chord.
The cross-sectional area of edged sleepers is
g a h |
||
and their volume |
||
V g l, |
||
where a is the width of the sleeper; h – sleeper thickness; t is the length of the wane chord; l is the length of the sleeper.
The cross-sectional area of a timber sleeper is calculated using the formula of a trapezoid and segments:
c t ; |
|||||
h – sleeper thickness; c – segment base; t – segment height. The cross-sectional area γ of timber sleepers (and transfer beams) is determined
They are located in the middle of the length of the assortment or as half the sum of the upper and lower sections.
To facilitate production calculations, special volume tables have been compiled for these types of sleepers. Sleepers are counted piece by piece using templates that reproduce their cross-sectional profile.
where a is the width of the slab; b – slab thickness; l is the length of the slab.
In this case, the cross-sectional area is set to 0.4 lengths from the butt end. In some cases, croakers are taken into account in the class. m3. The full wood coefficient of their stacks ranges from 0.48 to 0.74 and is determined according to GOST 5780-77.
The elements of the described lumber are shown in Fig. 3.1. The values of allowances when determining the volume of lumber in
calculations are not accepted.
To determine the volume unedged boards in accordance with OST 13-24-86, the following methods are used: piece, batch and sampling method. When the moisture content of lumber is more than 20%, correction factors are introduced into the accounting results using the first method according to GOST 5306-83 standards: for coniferous species - 0.96; for deciduous – 0.95.
The packages have the following requirements:
a) the boards on one side of the end are aligned; b) the boards in the horizontal rows of the package are laid close to each other
to a friend; c) the package has the same width along its entire length and vertical
sides.
The volume of the package in folded m3 is determined by multiplying its overall sides minus the dimensions of the gaskets and introducing corrections for the protruding ends in the loose part of the package.
Rice. 3.1. Cross sections some lumber: 1 – blunt-edged timber; 2 – unedged sleeper; 3 – croaker
The compact volume of the package is determined by introducing a packing density coefficient according to OST equal to 0.59...0.75.
When evaluating large batches of unedged boards, they are accounted for using a sampling method. Sample sizes for determining the average volume of a board are provided: for lumber of the same length - at least 3% of the delivered lot, but not less than 60 boards; with an admixture of up to 15% of shorter ones - not less than 4%, but not less than 80 boards; for lumber of no more than 4 adjacent lengths - not less than 7%, but not less than 120 boards.
The percentage of sawn timber yield, according to TsNIIMOD data, increases with an increase in the upper diameter of the logs from 53% at dv/o = 14 cm to
64% at d w/o = 44 cm.
From 1 m3 of sleeper logs, on average, 6...7 sleepers come out, constituting 52...60% by volume. In addition, boards (8...15%) and slabs (7...15%) are obtained. Minimum diameters in the upper section for the production of sleepers of category A are 23 cm, B - 24 cm.
When sawing logs, a significant amount of waste is generated. They are increasingly used for the production of process chips, in hydrolysis production, for heating, etc. This wood waste is taken into account in the book. m3. Their full wood coefficient is on average: sawdust - 0.35; trimming boards, beams - 0.58.
To account for wood processing waste, full wood coefficients are used in accordance with TU 13-539-80.
3.6. Accounting for chipped, hewn, planed, peeled
And other timber
TO the group in question is quite big number timber harvested through primary machining wood.
TO thin wood raw materials include trunks with a thickness of 2 to 6 cm. They are harvested with a length of 1...3 m with a gradation of 0.5 m. Such raw materials, stacked in stacks, are assessed in a folded measure, with subsequent conversion to a dense one according to the full wood coefficients given in table 3.7.
Table 3.7 - Full wood coefficients of small-sized wood raw materials
Full wood coefficients for the length of fine raw materials, m |
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Deciduous |
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Bondar stave different sizes, depending on the intended purpose, are taken into account individually, in thousands of pieces or in sets (side and bottom). Its volume is determined in square meters. m3 in three dimensions using special tables.
The sled runner is counted in pairs, the wheel rim - in pairs (on the front and rear wheels) or in camps (on all four wheels). Their volumes are determined using the trapezoid formula:
hl. |
||||
Blanks are sections of trunks with a special shape of the product given to them by trimming. They are counted in weight units.
Planed and peeled plywood occupies a special place in the described group. It is recorded in m2.
In addition, they produce whole line products local significance: bushings, spokes, shovels, rakes, etc., counted in pieces. Roofing and plaster shingles are also accepted in thousands of pieces.
Technological chips and shavings are taken into account in the book. m3. Their woodiness coefficient is taken equal to 0.37 and 0.11, respectively. Special standards are provided for wood chips when transported by road and rail, for which the considered indicator varies from 0.36 to 0.43.
The useful yield from raw materials of individual assortments is: cooper cage - 30...40%, wheel rim - 20...25%, sled runner - 65%, plywood - 50%, roofing and plaster shingles - 50%, etc. Therefore, it seems possible to calculate the need for raw materials for a particular production.
Currently, it is technologically quite possible to fully utilize the entire phytomass of trees. The organization of such a cycle should be based on economic indicators of production.
Control questions
1. Give a classification of forest products based on their size, shape, nature of industrial use and accounting methods.
2. What methods of determining the volume of logs do you know?
3. Give a systematization of firewood according to its existing properties and characteristics.
4. On what factors does the full-wood ratio of firewood depend?
5. What methods of recording brushwood, branches and tree bark are used in forestry?
6. Describe the main methods of lumber valuation.
7. What are the features of accounting for chopped, hewn, planed and peeled timber?
8. What standards describe the methods of accounting for the main harvested timber?
The ratio of the volume of wood in dense cubic meters to the volume of the layer occupied by a stack, heap or woodpile is called the full wood coefficient and is calculated using the formula
Where P is the full wood coefficient; Upl - amount of wood, PL. M3; Uskl - volume of wood layer, skl. m3.
The full wood coefficient P depends on the size and shape of the particles, the moisture content of the wood, the method of laying the wood in a given container, and the time of fuel storage in it. This coefficient can vary widely.
The average value of the full wood coefficient of various types of natural wood waste is given in Table. 17.
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17. Full wood coefficients of various wood wastes
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In accordance with GOST 15815-83, the coefficient of full wood of process chips when dumped freely before sending to the consumer is 0.36. The coefficient of full wood chips in the back of a car or in a railway car after transporting it by road or rail over a distance of up to 50 km is 0.4, and when transporting chips over a distance of over 50 km it is 0.42. These values of the full wood coefficient can be accepted with a small error for fuel chips. The full wood coefficient increases under the influence of pneumatic loading, reaching a value of 0.43.
The full wood coefficient of fuel chips is almost the same as this coefficient for process wood chips. When carrying out technological calculations, it is recommended to select the coefficients of full wood of shredded wood within the following limits:
Chips from logging waste.................................... 0.30. . .0.36
Chips from wood processing waste.................................... 0.32. . L,38
Loose sawdust................................................... ............... 0.20. . .0.30
Sawdust caked................................................... ............. 0.33. . .0.37
Branches and brushwood tied in bunches.................................... 0.35. . .0.40
Rail................................................. ........................... 0.35. . .0.60
Croaker........................................................ ......................... 0.45. . .0.60
Firewood................................................. ........................ 0.70. . .0.80
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Pyrolysis boiler from 25-60 kW A solid fuel boiler is a boiler that runs on solid fuel such as wood, wood waste, pellets, organic waste, coal and the like. A pyrolysis boiler is a boiler based on...
This question comes from every third person who wants to know the price of firewood or purchase firewood for fireplaces in baths, saunas or barbecues.
Warehouse meter can be imagined as a cube (1 meter - height, 1 meter - depth, 1 meter - width) of densely stacked firewood. 1 fold/m. - this is about 0.75 cubic meters of solid wood (just imagine such a solid wooden cube).
You can determine how many stacks/m or cubic/m of firewood is in the car, if they are not stacked there, but lie evenly in bulk along the entire length of the body without a hill, by measuring the length, width and height of the body and then multiplying them.
From the embankment to the station. / M. conversion factor - from 0.73 to 0.82 depending on the length of the firewood.
0.80 for firewood 25cm long
0.78 for firewood 33cm long
0.75 for firewood 50cm long
0.73 for firewood 75cm long
The error of such a miscalculation is 5-8%.
Question: How many stackers of firewood are there in the back of a car (such as the one shown in the photo below)? To get the answer, we turn on logic and remember schools. While the car was driving along our roads to you, the firewood was somewhat settled on potholes and gullies. This is good, because as a result of shaking, a more homogeneous “pile” of firewood was obtained, and the value that will be obtained after recalculating the “bulk” firewood into storage meters will be more accurate.
Mentally We divide the body into 2 parts (Figure 1 and 2). One part (1) is presented in the form of a rectangular parallelepiped, etc. "slides".
We determine the volume of the parallelepiped (1) by multiplying the lengths. As a result, we obtain the volume of firewood in the parallelepiped in bulk:
V(1)= 3.6m*2.2m*0.6m=4.752m3
By multiplying the obtained value by the conversion factor (for firewood 0.33 m long it is equal to 0.78), we obtain the number of firewood storage meters in the specified parallelepiped, namely:
Vskl(1)=4.752m3*0.78=3.707skl.meter
Determining the volume of firewood in the “hill” (2) is somewhat more difficult. To do this, it is necessary to model the formulas of the curves shown in the photograph, and then, using mathematical methods of integral calculus and transformations, derive the volume occupied by the “slide” (2) in the body. :)
However, we won’t do this, since we don’t have time, and we don’t want to delay the car (we need it quickly and roughly, right?), but we’ll do the following:
Let’s mentally imagine instead of the “slide” (2) a parallelepiped, in which the “slide” itself (2) occupies at least 70% of the area in each of the body projections (side and rear views) (See photo). If the “slide” is too steep, then don’t be shy, climb onto the body and make it flatter. We descend from the “heaven” to the ground and measure the height.
In this case the height is: 0.28m + 0.35m = 0.63m.
We determine the volume of the parallelepiped (2) by multiplying the length, width and height. As a result, we obtain the volume of firewood in the parallelepiped in bulk:
Vpp= 3.6m*2.2m*0.63m=4.987m3
To obtain the volume of bulk firewood occupied by the “slide” (2), we multiply the resulting value by 0.7:
V(2)=4.987m3*0.7=3.49m3
Multiplying the resulting value by the conversion factor, we obtain the number of firewood storage meters in the “hill” (2):
Vskl(2)=3.49m3*0.78=2.72skl.meter
In total, we find that, according to our approximate calculations, the specified body contains:
Vskl=Vskl(1) +Vskl(2) = 3.707 +2.72 = 6.43 skl.meters,
which corresponds to reality within the limits of error (0.5-0.6 square meters) for the proposed method, since in the back of the car shown in the photograph there are at least 6.3 square meters of oak firewood.
The error of the given calculation method is 10-12%, however, it allows us to approximately determine the volume of a car loaded with firewood with an accuracy of 0.5-0.7 square meters.
Attention: The above approach to determining the volume of firewood in the body of a car can only be used as an approximate or approximate one for assessment.
Another popular method of delivering firewood is in grids or stacked in rows. In this case, it is quite easy to determine the number of cubic meters brought. We don’t have to convert the bulk volume to the folded volume; the only thing that needs to be done is to measure the woodpile, calculate the volume, and then make calculations using the coefficient already known to you.
As you can see, there is nothing complicated in the calculations. For precise definition number of cubic meters, you just need to find out the volume of firewood brought, convert it into storage meters, and then, using the coefficient, find out the number of cubes.
