How to determine the volume of firewood? Determination of the supply of air resin Taxation measurements and measuring instruments
Calculation for 1 tree
| Item no. | Name of work | Unit measurements | Discharge of working something | Completion period, months. | Multiplicity | Scope of work | ||||||||
| Labor Zat-rates | Mechanization means | Materials | ||||||||||||
| Person-hour | Name, brand | Mach.-h. | Name | Unit measurements | Quantity | |||||||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.11В-1 add. ETKS 1997 TNV 1987 1.2.11В-2 add. ETKS 1997 TNV 1987 1.2.11В-3 add. ETKS 1997 TNV 1987 1.2.11В-4 add. ETKS 1997 | Removing trees for stumps manually with cutting off branches and bucking at trunk diameter at chest height: up to 0.2 m 0.2-0.3 m 0.3-0.4 m 0.4-0.5 m | skl. m 3 sk. m 3 sk. m 3 sk. m 3 | 3.64 2.66 2.11 1.85 | 6-2 hours drives 6-2 hours drives 6-2 hours drives 6-2 hours drives | 1-HP 1-HP 1-HP 1-HP | 0.758 1.60 3.66 6.63 | 2.75 4.25 7.723 12.26 | Chainsaw Gazelle Chainsaw Gazelle Chainsaw Gazelle Chainsaw Gazelle | 1.37 2.12 3.862 6.13 | - - - - | - - - - | - - - - |
| TNV 1987 1.2.11В-54 add. ETKS 1997 | Collection of branches and logging residues after felling trees - with a trunk diameter of up to 0.2 cm (20%) - with a trunk diameter of 0.2-0.3 cm (30%) - with a trunk diameter of 0.3-0.4 cm (30%) - with a trunk diameter of 0.4-0.5 cm (20%) | 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 | 1-HP 1-HP 1-HP 1-HP | 0.758 1.60 3.66 6.63 | 0.11 0.24 0.549 0.99 | - - - - | - - - - | - - - - | - - - - | - - - - | ||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.11В-9-60 add. ETKS 1997 | Loading onto vehicles and unloading branches and logging residues (Hvr x 2) - with a trunk diameter of up to 0.2 cm (20%) - with a trunk diameter of 0.2-0.3 cm (30%) - with a trunk diameter of 0.3-0.4 cm (30%) - with a trunk diameter of 0.4-0.5 cm (20%) | skl. .m 3 sk. m 3 sk. m 3 sk. m 3 | 1.08 1.08 1.08 1.08 | 1-HP 1-HP 1-HP 1-HP | 0.758 1.60 3.66 6.63 | 0.88 1.72 3.9528 7.16 | ZIL-MMZ ZIL-MMZ ZIL-MMZ ZIL-MMZ | 0.88 1.72 3.9528 7.16 | - - - - | - - - - | - - - - | |||
| Removal of branches and logging residues by motor transport over a distance of up to 60 km | T | 0.96 | - | 1-HP | 7.5888 | - | ZIL-MMZ | 7.285248 | Garbage removal voucher | T | 7.5888 |
TOTAL: 42.5848
Note: calculation of the volume of cubic capacity of trees cut down must correspond to tables of wood volumes 19. 22. 183. 187. 206, published in the “All-Union Standards for Forest Taxation”. M. 1992
TECHNOLOGICAL MAP 4.7
MANUAL RUGGING OF STUMPS
Calculation per 1 penny
| Item no. | Basis of standard costs | Name of work | Unit measurements | Standard time per unit. measurements, person-hour | Discharge of working something | Completion period, months. | Multiplicity | Scope of work | Required to perform work | |||||
| Labor Zat-rates | Mechanization means | Materials | ||||||||||||
| Person-hour | Name, brand | Mach.-h. | Name | Unit measurements | Quantity | |||||||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.11b-3-48 add. ETKS 1997 | Manual removal of stumps up to 70 cm in diameter. Dig up the stump, cut off the roots and clear away the soil. Uproot, move to a distance of up to 5 m using a crowbar, stag and other devices. Fill the hole with soil | stump | 10.6 | 1-HP | 10.6 | - | - | - | - | - | ||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.11b-7-56 add. ETKS 1997 | Uprooting a free-standing bush by hand. Dig up, cut off the roots and move to a distance of up to 50 m, placing them in a heap. Fill the hole with soil | bush | 0.36 | 1-HP | 0.36 | - | - | - | - | - |
TECHNOLOGICAL MAP 4.8
WATERING PLANTS FROM A HOSE
Calculation per 100 m 2
| Item no. | Basis of standard costs | Name of work | Unit measurements | Standard time per unit. measurements, person-hour | Discharge of working something | Completion period, months. | Multiplicity | Scope of work | Required to perform work | |||||
| Labor Zat-rates | Mechanization means | Materials | ||||||||||||
| Person-hour | Name, brand | Mach.-h. | Name | Unit measurements | Quantity | |||||||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.1- 6a-16.17 add. ETKS 1997 | Watering plants from a hose up to 40 m long at a rate of 5 l/m2. Bring a hose, unwind it and connect it to the water supply. Water the plants evenly. Wind up the hose and take it to a storage location. | 100 m 2 | 0.2 | U-1X | 0.2 | - | - | Water | l | |||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.1- 6b-18.19 add. ETKS 1997 | Watering plants from a hose over 40 m long at a rate of 5 l/m2. Bring a hose, unwind it and connect it to the water supply. Water the plants evenly. Wind up the hose and take it to a storage location. | 100 m 2 | 0.8 | U-1X | 0.8 | - | - | Water | l |
TECHNOLOGICAL MAP 4.9
LOADING SNOW ON VEHICLES
Calculation for 1 car
| Item no. | Basis of standard costs | Name of work | Unit measurements | Standard time per unit. measurements, person-hour | Discharge of working something | Completion period, months. | Multiplicity | Scope of work | Required to perform work | |||||
| Labor Zat-rates | Mechanization means | Materials | ||||||||||||
| Person-hour | Name, brand | Mach.-h. | Name | Unit measurements | Quantity | |||||||||
| Norm of State Unitary Enterprise Moszelenkhoz | Loading snow onto vehicles with movement within a site of up to 1 km with a body capacity of up to 6 m 3 | mash. | 1.0 | Water car Loader water 4 times Worker 3 times | X1-SH | 50.0 | ZIL-MMZ Loader | 50.0 | - | - | - | |||
| Norm of State Unitary Enterprise Moszelenkhoz | Snow removal by truck over a distance of up to 35 km | mash. | 2.4 | - | X1-SH | - | ZIL-MMZ | 120.0 | Snow removal coupon | T |
TOTAL: 50.0
TECHNOLOGICAL MAP 4.10
REMOVAL OF GARBAGE, CHOPPING RESIDUE,
USED EARTH, LEAVES, GRASS, SNOW, etc.
AT A DISTANCE OF 1 KM
Calculation for 1 t
| Item no. | Basis of standard costs | Name of work | Unit measurements | Standard time per unit. measurements, person-hour | Discharge of working something | Completion period, months. | Multiplicity | Scope of work | Required to perform work | |||||
| Labor Zat-rates | Mechanization means | Materials | ||||||||||||
| Person-hour | Name, brand | Mach.-h. | Name | Unit measurements | Quantity | |||||||||
| Norm of State Unitary Enterprise Moszelenkhoz | Removal of garbage, logging residues, waste land, leaves, grass, snow, etc. by road at a distance of 1 km | T | 0.016 | - | 1-HP | - | ZIL-MMZ | 0.016 | - | - | - |
TECHNOLOGICAL MAP 4.11
REMOVAL OF SELF-SEEDING TREE AND SHRUBS
Calculation for 1 ha
| Item no. | Basis of standard costs | Name of work | Unit measurements | Standard time per unit. measurements, person-hour | Discharge of working something | Completion period, months. | Multiplicity | Scope of work | Required to perform work | |||||
| Labor Zat-rates | Mechanization means | Materials | ||||||||||||
| Person-hour | Name, brand | Mach.-h. | Name | Unit measurements | Quantity | |||||||||
| Norm of State Unitary Enterprise Moszelenkhoz | Removing self-seeding | 100 pcs. | 5-1h water 1 | 1-HP | 0.5 | 26.5 | Chainsaw | - | - | - | ||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.7-9-54 add. ETS | Collection of logging residues (0.3 cubic meters/piece) | 100 m2 cleaning area | 0.31 | 1-HP | 0.31 | - | - | - | - | |||||
| TNV 1987 1.2.11В-9-60 add. ETS | Loading and unloading of logging residues (H time x 2) | skl.m 3 | 1.08 | 1-HP | 30.0 | 32.4 | ZIL-MMZ 45085 | 32.4 | - | - | - | |||
| Removal of logging residues by road transport over a distance of up to 60 km | T | 0.96 | 1-HP | 7.5 | - | ZIL-MMZ 45085 | 7.2 | Garbage removal voucher | T | 7.5 |
The ratio of the volume of wood in dense cubic meters to the volume of the layer occupied by a stack, heap or woodpile is called the full wood coefficient and is calculated using the formula
Where P is the full wood coefficient; Upl - amount of wood, PL. M3; Uskl - volume of wood layer, skl. m3.
The full wood coefficient P depends on the size and shape of the particles, the moisture content of the wood, the method of laying the wood in a given container, and the time of fuel storage in it. This coefficient can vary widely.
The average value of the full wood coefficient of various types of natural wood waste is given in Table. 17.
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17. Full wood coefficients of various wood wastes
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In accordance with GOST 15815-83, the coefficient of full wood of process chips when dumped freely before sending to the consumer is 0.36. The coefficient of full wood chips in the back of a car or in a railway car after transporting it by road or rail over a distance of up to 50 km is 0.4, and when transporting chips over a distance of over 50 km it is 0.42. These values of the full wood coefficient can be accepted with a small error for fuel chips. The full wood coefficient increases under the influence of pneumatic loading, reaching a value of 0.43.
The full wood coefficient of fuel chips is almost the same as this coefficient for process wood chips. When carrying out technological calculations, it is recommended to select the coefficients of full wood of shredded wood within the following limits:
Chips from logging waste.................................... 0.30. . .0.36
Chips from wood processing waste.................................... 0.32. . L,38
Loose sawdust................................................... ............... 0.20. . .0.30
Sawdust caked................................................... ............. 0.33. . .0.37
Branches and brushwood tied in bunches.................................... 0.35. . .0.40
Rail................................................. ............................... 0.35. . .0.60
Croaker........................................................ ......................... 0.45. . .0.60
Firewood................................................. ........................ 0.70. . .0.80
How much does a cube (cubic meter) of wood weigh? The weight of a cubic meter of wood depends on the type of wood and humidity. · The heaviest tree is snakewood (Piratinera Guiana, Brosinum Guiana, “snake tree”, “speckled tree”), its volume…
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This question comes from every third person who wants to know the price of firewood or purchase firewood for fireplaces in bathhouses, saunas or barbecues.
Storage meter can be imagined as a cube (1 meter - height, 1 meter - depth, 1 meter - width) of densely stacked firewood. 1 fold/m. - this is about 0.75 cubic meters of solid wood (just imagine such a solid wooden cube).
You can determine how many stacks/m or cubic/m of firewood is in the car, if they are not stacked there, but lie evenly in bulk along the entire length of the body without a hill, by measuring the length, width and height of the body and then multiplying them.
From the embankment to the station. / M. conversion factor - from 0.73 to 0.82 depending on the length of the firewood.
0.80 for firewood 25cm long
0.78 for firewood 33cm long
0.75 for firewood 50cm long
0.73 for firewood 75cm long
The error of such a miscalculation is 5-8%.
Question: How many stackers of firewood are there in the back of a car (such as the one shown in the photo below)? To get the answer, we turn on logic and remember schools. While the car was driving along our roads to you, the firewood was somewhat settled on potholes and gullies. This is good, because as a result of shaking, a more homogeneous “pile” of firewood was obtained, and the value that will be obtained after recalculating the “bulk” firewood into storage meters will be more accurate.
Mentally We divide the body into 2 parts (Figure 1 and 2). One part (1) is presented in the form of a rectangular parallelepiped, etc. "slides".
We determine the volume of the parallelepiped (1) by multiplying the lengths. As a result, we obtain the volume of firewood in the parallelepiped in bulk:
V(1)= 3.6m*2.2m*0.6m=4.752m3
Multiplying the obtained value by the conversion factor (for firewood 0.33 m long it is equal to 0.78), we obtain the number of firewood storage meters in the specified parallelepiped, namely:
Vskl(1)=4.752m3*0.78=3.707skl.meter
Determining the volume of firewood in the “hill” (2) is somewhat more difficult. To do this, it is necessary to model the formulas of the curves shown in the photograph, and then, using mathematical methods of integral calculus and transformations, derive the volume occupied by the “slide” (2) in the body. :)
However, we won’t do this, since we don’t have time, and we don’t want to delay the car (we need it quickly and roughly, right?), but we’ll do the following:
Let’s mentally imagine, instead of the “slide” (2), a parallelepiped, in which the “slide” itself (2) occupies at least 70% of the area in each of the body projections (side and rear views) (See photo). If the “slide” is too steep, then don’t be shy, climb onto the body and make it flatter. We descend from the “heaven” to the ground and measure the height.
In this case the height is: 0.28m + 0.35m = 0.63m.
We determine the volume of the parallelepiped (2) by multiplying the length, width and height. As a result, we obtain the volume of firewood in the parallelepiped in bulk:
Vpp= 3.6m*2.2m*0.63m=4.987m3
To obtain the volume of bulk firewood occupied by the “slide” (2), we multiply the resulting value by 0.7:
V(2)=4.987m3*0.7=3.49m3
Multiplying the resulting value by the conversion factor, we obtain the number of firewood storage meters in the “hill” (2):
Vskl(2)=3.49m3*0.78=2.72skl.meter
In total, we find that according to our approximate calculations, the specified body contains:
Vskl=Vskl(1) +Vskl(2) = 3.707 +2.72 = 6.43 skl.meters,
which corresponds to reality within the limits of error (0.5-0.6 square meters) for the proposed method, since in the back of the car shown in the photograph there are at least 6.3 square meters of oak firewood.
The error of the given calculation method is 10-12%, however, it allows us to approximately determine the volume of a car loaded with firewood with an accuracy of 0.5-0.7 square meters.
Attention: The above approach to determining the volume of firewood in the body of a car can only be used as an approximate or approximate one for assessment.
Another popular method of delivering firewood is in grids or stacked in rows. In this case, it is quite easy to determine the number of cubic meters brought. We don’t have to convert the bulk volume to the folded volume; the only thing that needs to be done is to measure the woodpile, calculate the volume, and then make calculations using the coefficient already known to you.
As you can see, there is nothing complicated in the calculations. To accurately determine the number of cubic meters, you just need to find out the volume of brought firewood, convert it into storage meters, and then, using the coefficient, find out the number of cubic meters.
Stump tar– this is the naturally resinous core part of stumps and roots coniferous species. Osmol serves as a raw material for turpentine and rosin production. Our country produces and processes stump resin from Scots pine and cedar pine.
Resources of stump resin are determined based on the number and diameters of stumps, using regional reference tables.
Using the initial data in Appendix 1 and the taxation characteristics of the areas presented in Table. 2.17, as well as from the values of the average diameter and number of osmol stumps per 1 hectare (Table 2.18), the stock of stump osmol per 1 hectare and the total area of the allotment are determined (Table 2.19).
Table 2.17
Taxation characteristics of pine stands allocated for felling
| No. | Issue no. | S, ha | Compound | D, cm | Bonitet | Completeness | Year of felling | |
| 5,2 | 6S2E2B | 0,6 | ||||||
| 3,4 | 7S3B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 1,2 | 6S2B1E1Os | 0,6 | ||||||
| 6,8 | 6S3B1Os | 0,5 | ||||||
| 2,2 | 7S2B1Os | 0,5 | ||||||
| 4,1 | 6S4B | 0,4 | ||||||
| 5,0 | 6S1E3B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 3,8 | 7S1E2B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 2,9 | 8S2B | 0,6 | ||||||
| 4,2 | 8S1E1B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 2,4 | 7S3B | 0,6 | ||||||
| 6,3 | 6S2E2B | 0,5 | ||||||
| 2,2 | 8S2B | 0,4 | ||||||
| 6,4 | 7S1E1B1Os | 0,6 | ||||||
| 3,3 | 7S3B | 0,5 |
When determining the number of stumps, it is necessary to take into account the share of pine in the forest stand formula by multiplying by the participation coefficient. Also, the number of tar stumps depends on the age of felling and is expressed by the following ratio:
Table 2.18
Determination of the average diameter and number of stumps per 1 hectare, depending on the quality class and completeness of pine plantations
| Quality class | Wed. D ancient, cm | Number of trunks (stumps) at fullness | Wed. D stumps, cm | ||||||
| 1,0 | 0,9 | 0,8 | 0,7 | 0,6 | 0,5 | 0,4 | |||
| II | |||||||||
| III | |||||||||
| IV | |||||||||
| V | |||||||||
Example. Determine the supply of stump resin with an average stump diameter of 28 cm and their number per 1 ha - 325 pcs.
The supply of stump resin according to the digits of numbers and the corresponding diameter will be: for three hundred - 17 cl. m 3 (the intersection of the number 3 in the quantity column and the “hundreds” column); for two dozen – 1 cl. m 3; for 5 units – 0. Accordingly, the supply of 325 stumps will be: 17+1+0=18 stumps. m 3.
Table 2.19
Determination of the supply of air resin
| Wed. D stumps, cm | Quantity | Wed. D stumps, cm | Quantity | Stock of stump resin, cl.m 3 by digits of numbers | |||||||
| thousand | hundreds | dec. | units | thousand | hundreds | dec. | units | ||||
| - | - | - | |||||||||
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According to the table 2.20 is the mass of stump resin harvested from the allotment area at a given humidity, per 1 hectare.
Table 2.20
Converting the folded volume of air resin into weight indicators
Based on the indicator of the recency of felling, the ripeness classes of stump resin are determined for all sections, the characteristics of which are given in Table. 2.21 and the content of resinous substances per 1 ha of allotment in the total mass of raw materials is calculated according to table. 2.22 taking into account Appendix 19.
Table 2.21
Ripeness classes of stump resin
Table 2.22
| Ripeness class | TUM | |||||||
| Bors | Subors | |||||||
| dry | fresh | wet | raw | dry | fresh | wet | raw | |
| I | 9,8 | 10,5 | 7,1 | 6,5 | 10,2 | 11,2 | 7,6 | 5,8 |
| II | 16,4 | 16,9 | 11,9 | 10,8 | 16,2 | 15,5 | 11,5 | 10,2 |
| III | 20,5 | 19,4 | 16,5 | 14,2 | 19,8 | 18,5 | 16,7 | 15,8 |
| IV | 23,8 | 24,5 | 22,2 | 20,1 | 23,5 | 22,9 | 21,0 | 19,5 |
Knowing the area of the deposit, the supply of stump resin (sq. m 3 and kg) and the amount of resinous substances (kg) for all deposits are determined.
Based on the results of all calculations, the table is filled in. 2.23.
Table 2.23
Summary statement for determining the stock of stump resin and the amount of resinous substances
| No. | Issue no. | S, ha | Ripeness class | Stock of stump resin, cl. m 3 | Weight of air resin, kg | Amount of resinous substances, kg |
| 5,2 | ||||||
| 3,4 | ||||||
| 1,2 | ||||||
| 6,8 | ||||||
| 2,2 | ||||||
| 4,1 | ||||||
| 5,0 |
Tasks to complete practical work 2.10
1) Define average diameter stumps and their number for each section.
2) Determine the supply of stump resin (storage m 3 per 1 ha) for each allocation.
3) Find the mass of stump resin harvested from 1 hectare of each area.
4) Determine the content of resinous substances in the stump osmol (kg/ha) for each excrement.
5) Find the total supply of stump resin, its mass, and the amount of resinous substances for all excretions.
2.11. Calculation of logging waste resources and the dynamics of their formation throughout the year
An important direction at present is the more complete use of the logging fund and the reduction of wood losses during its harvesting and transportation. For various reasons, the logging fund allocated for felling is developed and used extremely irrationally. The amount of wood loss and waste at all stages of production ranges from 1/3 to 1/2 of the total logging fund allocated for felling.
With the technology and logging technology currently used at forestry enterprises, waste is generated at the cutting area, loading point (upper warehouse) and timber warehouse.
Accountable logging waste includes twigs, branches and tops, fragments of trunks, waste from processing the dimensions of a cart, as well as residues from bucking logs into assortments (breakdowns, peaks).
IN general view volume of any wood waste V 0 T , can be determined by the formula:
Where Vc- volume of raw materials relative to which waste is determined, m 3 ; N- waste generation standard, %.
The volume of waste in the form of twigs, branches and tips at the cutting site and at the loading point is determined relative to the volume of wood removal. At a timber warehouse, the volume of exported wood, in particular the volume of bucking waste, is determined relative to the volume of wood to be bucked. The consolidated standard for the formation of logging waste, established by region, taking into account natural waste used as fertilizer and to strengthen skidding trails, is given in Table. 2.24.
Table 2.24
Consolidated standard for the generation of logging waste
| Region | Standard for the generation of logging waste, % of wood removal | |||
| Twigs, branches, tops on a growing tree | Decay of twigs, branches, during felling, skidding | Consolidated standard for logging waste suitable for use | ||
| Used to strengthen skidding ditches and further as fertilizer | Including used to strengthen dies | |||
| Northwestern region | 13,3 | 8,1 | 2,8 | 5,2 |
| Central region | 12,2 | 7,7 | 3,4 | 4,5 |
| Povolzhsky district | 12,2 | 4,4 | - | 7,8 |
| North Caucasus region | 16,6 | 5,7 | - | 10,9 |
| Ural region | 14,4 | 10,2 | 5,0 | 4,2 |
| West Siberian region | 12,2 | 10,9 | 5,8 | 1,3 |
| East Siberian region | 13,3 | 10,1 | 5,3 | 3,2 |
| Far Eastern region | 15,5 | 11,8 | 6,2 | 3,7 |
The free average standard of logging waste suitable for use may vary depending on a number of factors. IN summer period its value increases slightly (1.2 times), and in winter it decreases (up to 0.9 times). Its value is also adjusted depending on the degree of swampiness of the forest fund allocated for felling. When the swampiness of cutting areas is up to 20, up to 40, and up to 60%, correction factors equal to 0.8 are applied, respectively; 0.6 and 0.4.
The equipment and technology used have a significant impact on the amount of logging waste generated. For example, the loss of stem wood harvested by machine is approximately 1.6-1.8 times higher than when developing cutting areas using machine systems using gasoline-powered saws. Wood waste at the cutting site in the form of damaged logs and their fragments is taken into account in the volume of actual use. According to research by TsNIIME , the average standard for the use of stem wood relative to the volume of removal can be taken as an average of 6.4% (in winter - 6.65%, in summer - 6.16%). Standards for the use of waste from bringing the dimensions of a timber truck to the requirements for the transportation of goods by road public use can be taken as 4% - when transporting wood in logs, 9% - when transporting wood with trees (in summer - 10%, in winter - 8%). The standard for the generation of bucking waste in forests can be adopted as for timber warehouses (Table 2.26), increased by 30% due to worse working conditions.
For an informed choice and operation of machine systems that produce technological chips in the cutting area, it is important not only to know the total volume of waste, but also to take into account the dynamics of the formation of this waste throughout the year (by month, per shift).
Then, in general terms, the real annual volume of logging waste generated at the enterprise can be determined by the formula
(2.67)
Where V i- real volume of logging waste in i th month, m 3. In general, the value V i can be calculated using the formula
where is the annual volume of logging work of the enterprise, m 3; K i T And K i B- coefficients of unevenness, respectively, of skidding and removal of wood in i- month (Table 2.25), showing how the volume of a certain type of work in a particular month differs in comparison with the average monthly for the year; N ij - standard of use j-th type of logging waste in i-month, %.
For specific production conditions and the types of waste taken into account, formula (2.68) will take the form
Where N i 1 , N i 2 , N i 3 , N i 4 - standards, respectively, for the use of waste in the form of: twigs, branches, tips; trunk fragments; wood generated during processing of cart dimensions; detachments and visors; C s, C 3, C m- coefficients taking into account, respectively: the season of work; the degree of swampiness of cutting areas and the system of machines that harvest wood.
The replaceable volume of logging waste generated after final felling, in m3 in different months of the year, can be determined by the formula
Where npi- number of working days in i-th month; k cm i- shift ratio in i-th month.
The average shift volume of logging waste during the year is (2.7
Where n p number of working days per year; - shift ratio during the year.
Example(conditional figures): a logging enterprise with an annual production volume of 200 thousand m3 is located in the Komi Republic and carries out transportation in assortments; harvesting is carried out by a system of machines using gasoline-powered saws; the number of working days by month, starting from January, is: 24, 23, 24, 21, 23, 26, 25, 26, 24, 24, 20.25; the shift coefficient in all months is 1; the degree of swampiness of cutting areas is 20%.
The volume of logging waste suitable for use for technological and fuel needs will include twigs, branches, tops, trunk fragments, loose ends and canopies.
The actual volume of logging waste generated in i th month, determined by formula (2.68), using the data: table. 2.24 ( N i 1, reduced for mmmmmmmmmmmm winter months 0.9 times and increased for the summer months by 1.2 times); table 2.25, variant ( K iT And K iB); standards for the use of damaged stem wood: N i 2=6.4% (in winter 6.65%, in summer 6.16%), as well as standards for the generation of bucking waste taken from table. 2.26 and increased by 30%.
Table 2.25
Monthly coefficients of unevenness of skidding K i T and wood removal K i B
| Months | Options | |||||||||||
| A | b | V | G | d | e | |||||||
| K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | K i T | K i B | |
| January | 1,15 | 1,18 | 1,22 | 1,41 | 1,28 | 1,73 | 1,08 | 1,12 | 1,10 | 1,15 | 1,13 | 1,20 |
| February | 1,30 | 1,33 | 1,28 | 1,39 | 1,32 | 1,72 | 1,04 | 1,12 | 1,20 | 1,25 | 1,16 | 1,23 |
| March | 1,38 | 1,41 | 1,33 | 1,40 | 1,66 | 2,01 | 1,21 | 1,25 | 1,30 | 1,35 | 1,28 | 1,28 |
| April | 0,95 | 0,69 | 0,83 | 0,76 | 0,88 | 0,87 | 0,98 | 1,00 | 1,00 | 0,60 | 0,95 | 0,73 |
| May | 0,77 | 0,64 | 0,74 | 0,70 | 0,61 | 0,46 | 0,82 | 0,80 | 0,70 | 0,80 | 0,84 | 0,93 |
| June | 1,00 | 0,92 | 0,95 | 1,00 | 0,72 | 0,63 | 0,96 | 1,01 | 0,90 | 0,90 | 0,95 | 1,05 |
| July | 0,95 | 0,99 | 0,92 | 0,90 | 0,78 | 0,63 | 0,94 | 0,98 | 0,90 | 0,95 | 0,90 | 0,87 |
| August | 0,92 | 0,99 | 0,94 | 0,98 | 0,87 | 0,67 | 0,92 | 0,92 | 0,90 | 1,00 | 0,92 | 0,98 |
| September | 0,91 | 0,88 | 0,87 | 0,72 | 0,86 | 0,60 | 1,00 | 0,94 | 0,95 | 1,00 | 0,91 | 0,93 |
| October | 0,77 | 0,89 | 0,87 | 0,64 | 0,89 | 0,51 | 1,00 | 0,95 | 0,90 | 0,95 | 0,96 | 0,96 |
| November | 0,90 | 1,02 | 0,98 | 1,00 | 0,91 | 0,85 | 0,99 | 0,92 | 0,95 | 0,90 | 0,97 | 0,91 |
| December | 1,00 | 1,06 | 1,07 | 1,10 | 1,16 | 1,30 | 1,06 | 0,99 | 1,10 | 1,15 | 1,04 | 1,03 |
Table 2.26
Standard for the generation of crosscutting waste
Then the volume of logging waste generated, for example, in January will be
and in August it will be equal
The volumes of logging waste for other months are determined similarly. Having summed up their values for all months (formula 2.67), we find the real annual volume of logging waste at the enterprise, equal to 19646 m3.
By determining the monthly volumes of logging waste using formula (2.70), it is easy to obtain replacement volumes of logging waste in these months. For example, in August there will be a shift
waste
Having determined the monthly and shift volumes of logging waste, we build a graph of the dynamics of their formation throughout the year (Fig. 2.9) based on Appendix 1.
Rice. 2.9. Dynamics of logging waste formation
Tasks for practical work 2.11
1) Establish the types of waste generated at the cutting site and the area of their use.
2) Determine the real annual volume of logging waste.
4) Construct a graph of the dynamics of the formation of logging waste during the year.
Taxation measurements and measuring instruments
Units of measurement in forest taxation.
The following units of measurement are accepted in forest taxation: to determine the length of ridges, logs, canes and the height of trees - meter (m); diameter - centimeter (cm); cross-sectional area of tree trunks and logs - square centimeter and square meter(cm2, m2); volume - cubic meter (m3); weight - kilogram (kg); growing stock - cubic meter (m3); growth in volume is a cubic meter, in thickness - a centimeter and in height - a meter. The amount of harvested wood is taken into account in dense and folded cubic meters(sq. m3 and sq. m3), and the amount of standing wood is only in dense cubic meters. Folded cubic meters take into account firewood, brushwood and small business assortments (pulpwood, ore stand, etc.), while the measurement includes, in addition to wood, the gaps formed between individual segments; in dense ones - only wood of the appropriate assortments without gaps and voids.
Roulette.
To measure the length of felled trees, various materials, stacks of timber, as well as woodpiles of firewood and piles of brushwood, as a rule, a tape measure is used (Fig. 1, a). It is usually made from linen tape, boiled in drying oil and coated with paint, about 1.5 cm wide and 5-20 m long. On one side of the tape, divisions are marked in meters, centimeters and half centimeters. Every 10 cm are marked with black numbers, and meters - red. The made braid is placed in a special (flat round) leather case: one end is attached to the metal axis of the case, driven by a handle in a clockwise direction, the other is taken out of the case and a metal ring is attached to its end. The divisions should be applied in the direction. from the ring to the axle.
Rice. 1. Measuring tools: a - pen; b - measuring tape
Measurements using a tape measure are made by two workers: one takes the end of the tape measure with the ring, the second remains with the case. The number located at the tape exit from the case shows the length of the line being measured. If the measurement is carried out by one person, then the ring must be put on an object at the beginning of the line being measured (at the zero of the tape measure). When unfolding the tape measure, care must be taken to avoid tearing the tape from the axis, and when wrapping it, avoid twisting, as this accelerates its wear and creates the possibility of tears. It is recommended to use the tape measure in dry weather; in damp weather it must be dried before rolling. A tape measure with wet tape wrapped around it quickly fails.
The disadvantage of a tape measure is that it stretches over time and therefore can give incorrect results. To eliminate this drawback, it is made of two layers with a thin copper wire sandwiched between the layers. In both cases, the length of the tape measure must be checked in order to make appropriate adjustments. performing work, requiring special precision. Sometimes tape measures are made of steel: they do not stretch, but when rolled up they often break, the divisions on them are difficult to see, and, in addition, they are much heavier than linen ones.
If treated with care, a linen tape measure can last for several years. Most often, the first centimeters of the tape and the place where the ring is attached wear out on a tape measure, but this can be easily fixed by sewing on the tape from an old tape measure.
Tape measures can also be used to measure small lines in areas such as construction sites.
Measuring pole, folding meter.
You can also measure the length of felled trees and various timber products with a measuring pole and a folding meter. Especially when measuring woodpiles, it is convenient to use a measuring pole, which can be made from a thin straight young tree. The felled tree is dried well and then planed, giving it a square or rectangular shape a bar with a cross section of (2-3) X (3-5) cm. The length of the pole should be commensurate with the length of the most common woodpiles. The most convenient for work are poles 2-3 m long. On the manufactured pole, notches are made with a knife or an ax every 10 cm, with the extreme division divided into centimeters. For clarity, lines are drawn along the bottom of the 1st notch with a red pencil, 0.5 - with a blue pencil, along the bottom of 10 and 1 - cm - with black. In addition, numbers indicating the length in meters are written in red pencil. For strength, the ends of the pole can be covered with metal plates or covered with tin.
The pole is placed horizontally on the woodpile and the length is measured, then, placing it against the woodpile, the height and, finally, the length of the logs. By multiplying the resulting values, the volume of the woodpile in folded cubic meters is obtained. For example, with a woodpile length of 4 and a height of 2 m, the length of the logs is 0.5 m, the volume of the woodpile is 4X2X0.5 = 4 approx. m3.
A folding meter can be metal or wood. Small divisions (up to 1 mm) are applied on one side of it, and larger divisions (up to 1 or 0.5 cm) are applied on the second side. The first side is used for measurements in work that requires great accuracy (for example, research), and the second side is used for household work. The device of a folding meter is very simple: it consists of six plates fastened with pins. When folded, it is very portable and fits easily in your pocket. To avoid easy breakage, it must be used very carefully (a wooden meter is especially fragile). Sometimes measuring meters are made from a single elastic steel strip placed in a small flat round metal case, reminiscent of a miniature tape measure.
Measuring tape. For measuring large lines on the ground at different housekeeping work(allocation of cutting areas, establishment of trial plots, etc.) and especially forest management (measurement of clearings, sight lines, boundaries, etc.) use measuring tapes (see Fig. 1.6). They are made from thin steel tape 0.5 mm thick, 2-3 cm wide and 20 m long. There are metal handles at the ends of the tape. On one side, divisions in meters, half meters and decimeters are applied by attaching special metal plaques to the tape various shapes, larger on meter and half meter divisions. Sometimes the numbers on meter plaques are 1, 2, 3, etc. For ease of carrying and storage, the tape is wound on an iron ring between the walls of four double-sided protrusions attached to it, which, after winding the tape, are screwed in with screws. These screws and handles, which are wider than the band and the holes between the tabs, keep the band from slipping off the ring. Each ribbon is accompanied by a set of 11 sharp pegs 40-50 cm long with rings on top, made of thick iron wire. The rings of the pegs are put on a large iron ring and stored and transported in this form.
During the work, two workers unwind the tape and carefully pull it in the direction of the measured and hung line. At the beginning of the line being measured, one worker, having stuck a peg into the ground, applies the tape to it with a zero, and the other, facing the first and slightly shaking and stretching the tape, sticks a second peg into the ground opposite the mark on the tape showing its end - 20 m. Then both go with the tape forward along the measured line. Having reached the second peg stuck in the ground, the first worker stops the second and aligns the beginning of the tape with the placed peg; the second one turns to face him again and places the next peg, and the first one at this time takes the second peg out of the ground and puts it on the ring on which the first peg was put; the second peg means that one measurement has been taken, i.e. the measured distance is 20 m. These processes are repeated until the entire line has been measured. When measuring lines over 200 m, a small wooden stake is driven in at the site of every 11th peg; the first worker passes all 10 pegs to the second, and the measurement continues. To avoid losing pegs, and hence incorrect counting, it is necessary to periodically check their availability.
When the worker reaches the end of the line being measured, he pulls the tape from the last peg to the pole placed at the end of the line and counts meters and decimeters. Based on the number of wooden stakes and iron pegs (minus one) driven into the ground by the worker, as well as the meters and decimeters measured at the last measurement of the tape, the total length of the measured line is determined.
Example. If 4 wooden stakes are driven into the ground, the worker has 9 pegs left, and 7 m and 4 dm are measured on the last tape, then the length of the measured line is (4X200) + (8X20) +7.4 m = 967.4 m.
Carrying out measurements without hanging lines may cause errors, since in this case the line cannot be straight.
Measuring fork.
To measure the thickness (diameter) of felled and growing trees, as well as various round timber, a forestry fork is used. It is the main tool for taxation work. There are a lot of designs of measuring forks. The simplest of them consists of a thick ruler up to 1 m long with divisions. At one end attached at right angles wooden block(fixed leg) about 0.5 m long, a second block of the same size (movable leg) is put through a hole made in it onto a ruler from the other end. It should move freely on the ruler and at the same time always be parallel to the first block.
Such a measuring fork has the disadvantage that with frequent use, the movable leg soon becomes loose and loses its position perpendicular to the ruler. In addition, in wet weather it swells, which delays the movement of the movable leg, and in dry weather it shrinks, as a result of which the movements of the movable leg become excessively free. All this causes errors in measurements. To eliminate this drawback, the cutout in the movable leg must be large sizes, how cross section rulers; smooth movement of the movable leg in any weather and preservation of perpendicularity are ensured by the use of various devices - screws, springs, rollers, wedges, etc.
When manufacturing a measuring fork, the following requirements must be met: a right angle between the ruler and the fixed leg; easy and smooth sliding along the line of the movable leg, parallel to the fixed leg; the length of the legs is somewhat greater than half the thickness of large measured trunks and timber; the ends of the legs are quite thin for ease of inserting a fork under a lying tree; correct and clear divisions on the measuring ruler; contact along the entire length of the internal planes of the legs when fully approaching; light weight of the fork and ease of handling.
A wooden measuring fork of an improved design was introduced as a State All-Union standard (Fig. 2), which consists of a ruler and legs - movable and fixed. The movable leg has a device - a metal insert with a screw, which allows you to increase or decrease the hole in the leg. Thanks to this device, the movable leg of the measuring fork moves smoothly along the ruler in any weather, maintaining perpendicularity to the ruler and parallelism to the fixed leg.
To reduce the contacting surfaces on the wide sides of the ruler, notches 1 mm deep were made for divisions of 0.5 cm with numbers every 2 cm, starting from zero on one side for more accurate measurements, on the other - 1 cm with numbers every 4 cm for making rounded calculations in steps of thickness 4 cm. In such recalculations and measurements, fractions less than half of the thickness step are discarded, and more than half are taken as whole numbers. To save the measurer from the need to round and speed up the calculation, rounded divisions are applied to the ruler: the first step of thickness (4 cm) is marked at half (2 cm), and subsequent divisions are applied and marked, counting from the first, in the usual order (every 4 cm) , as a result of which the 8 cm mark is placed where there should actually be 6 cm, etc. With this designation of divisions, the measurer always counts the measured diameter according to the last division, which he sees to the left of the movable leg of the measuring fork and which corresponds to the given diameter with a specified degree of rounding.
Rice. 2. Standard wooden measuring fork (I) and measurement with it (II): a - side for precise measurements; b - for measurements in 4 cm thickness steps; c - incorrect; r - correct; 1 - barrel diameter, 2 - chord
Example. The movable leg goes beyond the number 12 by one division, therefore, the measurer marks the diameter as 12 cm, although it is equal to 2 + 8 + 1 = 11 cm. With rounding, it is equal to 12 cm even if the movable leg goes beyond the number 12 by 3 divisions (2 +8+3=13 cm or rounded 12 cm), i.e. until the movable leg reaches the number 16.
In this way, trees are counted in 4-cm thickness steps. As a result of rounding, errors are possible, but when counting a large number of trees, these errors are ultimately reduced to a minimum, which is quite acceptable for forestry practice. When measuring a small number of trees and various round timber, you should use reverse side measuring fork, giving results without rounding with an accuracy of 0.5 cm.
When using a measuring fork, you must adhere to the following rules: apply a ruler to the barrel and smoothly, without pressure, place the barrel between the movable and fixed legs, taking into account the ability of the legs to spring, as a result of which pinching the barrel with force between them or the ends of the legs can give reduced results due to measuring only the chord and not the diameter (see Fig. 2); counting on a ruler must be carried out before removing the measuring fork from the tree; when measuring thickness standing tree the measurement site should be cleared of mosses and lichens; to obtain the most accurate results, you should measure not one diameter of the trunk (or part of it), but two mutually perpendicular diameters or the largest and smallest diameters and take the average value, since the trunk, as a rule, is not round.
Measuring bracket.
The thickness of the log in the upper section can be determined with a measuring bracket (Fig. 3). To make it, take a well-dried wooden block 50-80 cm long and plan a ruler from it rectangular section ZOX" 10 mm. One end is rounded and given the shape of a handle, and a metal plate with a width equal to its thickness is nailed to the other. The plate is bent onto a ruler on one side, and on the other remains in the form of a protrusion-hook 1.0-1 long .5 cm, which serves to ensure that when applying a measuring clamp to a cut of a log, the ruler does not slip and its beginning coincides with the edge of the cut (see Fig. 3) divisions are applied on both sides of the ruler in the direction from the protrusion of the hook to the handle in centimeters. and half centimeters with numbers every 2 or 5 cm. Every 10 cm is marked with a red pencil, the rest with a black pencil.
Rice. 3. Measuring bracket
When measuring, the measuring bracket must always pass through the middle of the cut, and the protrusion of the hook should rest against the edge of the cut, otherwise an incorrect result will be obtained. It is better to take two mutually perpendicular measurements and derive the average. The count is recorded without removing the staple from the cut. For an accurate measurement, the log should be carefully debarked, otherwise the protrusion-hook may catch part of the bast, and the result will be exaggerated.
Altimeter.
To determine the height of a standing tree, many different instruments and devices are used. The simplest and most accessible altimeter is a regular forest measuring stick (Fig. 4, a). When using it as an altimeter, a plumb line is attached approximately 6-8 cm from the end, and a zero line is marked on the movable leg at the same distance from the end, from which centimeter and half-centimeter divisions are applied in both directions. When combining the legs, the point of attachment of the plumb line on the fixed leg and the zero division on the movable leg must coincide. For ease of readings when crossing them with a plumb line, divisions on a movable leg are applied at an obtuse angle to the ruler of the measuring fork.
When taking measurements, the measurer moves away approximately at a distance equal to the height of the tree, so that its top is clearly visible from this point. The distance from the tree to the measurer is accurately measured with a tape measure; then the movable leg is moved away from the fixed one by the number of centimeters corresponding to the number of meters to the measurer, and the movable leg is secured with a screw; along the inner edge of the fixed leg, sight the top of the tree and count the centimeters along the plumb line to the movable leg. The number of centimeters shown by the plumb line, replaced by meters, plus the average height of a person (to the eyes), taken as 1.5 m, is equal to the height of the tree. The measuring fork allows you to measure trees with an accuracy of approximately ±0.5 m.
Example 1. The plumb line crossed the movable leg by 23.5 cm. The height of the tree is 23.5-4-1.5 = 25 m. The measurement is correct if the tree grows on level ground, and if on a slope below the measurer, then first you need to sight at the top of the tree and make a plumb line reading in centimeters, then at the base and make the same reading. In this case, the plumb line passes on the other side of the zero of the movable leg, i.e., in the direction of its end. By summing both readings, we get a number equal to the height of the tree in meters. To obtain the height of a tree located above the measurer, the result of the second reading must be subtracted from the first.
Example 2. The reading when sighting the tree below the measurer at the top showed 17 and at the base 3 cm. Therefore, the height of the tree is 17 + 3 = 20 m.
As an altimeter, you can use a simple rectangular board about 10x15 cm in size, made of plywood or thin board. Small size The tablet allows you to carry it in your pocket (see Fig. 4, b). Its surface is divided by lines parallel to the edges into a number of small squares. A grid of squares can be pre-drawn in ink on parchment paper and carefully pasted onto a board. A plumb line is attached in the upper right corner at a distance of approximately 3-4 cm from the edge at point E. Along the edges BD and CD, divisions are written: along the edge BD from top to bottom, and along the edge CD to the left and right from the line EO, crossing the board from top to bottom through the point of attachment of the plumb line E.
Rice. 4. Tools for measuring tree height: a - measuring fork; o - altimeter board; c - pendulum altimeter
To determine the height of a tree, use such a board to measure the distance from the point of sight to the tree (as when working with a measuring fork) and, based on the number of meters obtained, count the same number of squares from top to bottom along the edge. The line intersected at the end of the measurement, parallel to the base of the board, serves to measure the height of the tree being measured. Then they sight along the edge of the LV to the top of the tree. When the plumb line has calmed down, hold it with your hand and determine the number of squares at the point of intersection of the plumb line with the previously found one. parallel line(parts of the squares are determined by eye). This number plus 1.5 m (the height of a person up to the eyes) is the height of the tree.
Example. The distance from the sighting point to the tree is 18 m. Therefore, to measure the height of the tree being measured, a line parallel to the base and passing through the number 18 along the edge BD (18 squares from top to bottom) is used. Let’s assume that the plumb line crossed this line by 15.5 squares, then the height of the tree is 15.5 + 1.5 = 17 m.
If the measuring location is uneven, the height of the tree is determined in the same way as when working with a measuring fork; for readings when sighting at the base of a tree, when it is below the observer, it serves right side plank from the line crossing it from top to bottom through the point of attachment of the plumb line E. The accuracy of measurement using a plank is approximately the same as when working with a measuring fork. In order to obtain greater accuracy, it is advisable to attach diopters to the upper edge of the LP plate.
Of the special altimeters, the easiest to use and quite reliable in terms of measurement accuracy is the pendulum altimeter, proposed in 1949 by taxi operator N.I. Makarov (see Fig. 4, c). This is a thin metal plate resembling a sector of a circle with a radius of 8-10 cm in shape. At some distance from the corner of the sector, a metal pendulum is suspended, the sleeve of which is outside ends with a special head - a button that presses the pendulum to the plate, and on the inside it has a nut, when pressed, the pendulum begins to move. There are two division scales on the arc of the sector: the upper one - for counting the height of the tree when moving away from it at a distance of 10 m, the lower one - at 20 m. The scales make it possible to obtain the height of the tree without preliminary calculations when moving away for sighting at 10 and 20 m. To the side plate on which the pendulum is attached, a sighting tube is soldered with a socket for viewing on one side and with a small round hole for sighting at the top and base of the tree on the other.
The height of the tree is determined as follows. If the height does not exceed 15 m, they move away from it by 10 m, and if it approaches 20 m, then by 20 m. Then right hand take the altimeter, covering thumb arc notch, and with the index sighting tube, point the latter at the top of the tree^ and press index finger left hand on the nut of the pendulum, which begins to swing freely; Having allowed it to calm down, the nut is smoothly released, as a result of which the pendulum is pressed against the plate in a vertical position. After this, the height of the tree is measured using one of the division scales: 10 or 20, respectively. If the height of the tree, by preliminary determination, is more than 25 m, they move away 30 m and, after sighting at its height, take readings on both scales. Then the obtained readings are summed up and 1.5 m are added, resulting in the height of the measured tree.
Example 1. When measuring a tree from a distance of 10 m, a reading on the 10th scale of 9.5 m was obtained. Therefore, the height of the tree is 9.5 + 1.5 = 11 m.
Example 2. When measuring a tree from a distance of 20 m, a reading on the 20th scale of 17 m was obtained. Therefore, the height of the tree is 17 + 1.5 = 18.5 m.
Example 3. When measuring a tree from a distance of 30 m, a reading of 9 m was obtained on the 10th scale and 18 m on the 20th scale. Therefore, the height of the tree is 9+18+1.5 = 28.5 m.
If the tree grows on uneven terrain, then you need to sight 2 times: at the top and at the base (as when working with a measuring fork). A more accurate determination of tree height is obtained by measuring from a distance closer to their actual height. In this case, the reading obtained on the upper scale is divided by 10 and multiplied by the distance from the tree to the point from which the sighting was made.
Example. Sighting was carried out from a distance of 14 m; a reading of 11 m was obtained on the upper scale. Therefore, the height of the tree
X14+1.5=16.9 m.
Before starting work, it is necessary to check the serviceability of the altimeter. In a horizontal position (along the spirit level), the pendulum arrow should point to the zero division. When the nut is pressed, the pendulum should swing freely, and when lowered, it should immediately stop moving, since it is pressed against the plate.
Incremental drill.
To determine the growth of a tree in thickness, a small tool called an incremental drill is used (Fig. 5). This instrument consists of a metal tube internal diameter 5-7 mm. Drills come in different lengths, but usually 12 cm. One end of the tube is somewhat narrowed and has sharp edges with an external screw (also sharp) thread, the other has a quadrangular cross-section and flat edges. The quadrangular end of the tube is tightly inserted into another tube (hollow, unscrewable, metal), which is both a handle and a case for the instrument.
Before work, the thick bark of the tree must be cleaned somewhat, but not to the point of wood. Then, perpendicular to the surface of the barrel, a drill is screwed in to the desired depth, having first inserted a lance-shaped steel serrated with one side plate - a brush, with the teeth of which a column of wood is clamped in a drill and, together with it, is removed from the tree. The drill must be removed very carefully so as not to break this column, since the thickness of the annual layers is also measured on it using a brush, on the back of which divisions in millimeters and centimeters are marked. After work, the drill handle is unscrewed and a tube with a screw thread and a brush inserted into it is placed in it. In this form, the drill is convenient to carry around the forest.
