Test: The struggle of Rus' against external aggression in the 13th century. The fight against external aggression in the 13th century. Mongol conquest. Expansion from the West. Alexander Nevskiy
The 13th century in the history of Rus' is a time of armed resistance to the onslaught from the east (Mongo-Tatars) and northwest (Germans, Swedes, Danes).
The Mongol-Tatars came to Rus' from the depths of Central Asia. The Empire, formed in 1206, led by Khan Temujin, who accepted the title of Khan of all Mongols (Genghis Khan), by the 30s. XIII century She subjugated Northern China, Korea, Central Asia, and Transcaucasia to her power. In 1223, in the Battle of Kalka, the combined army of Russians and Polovtsians was defeated by a 30,000-strong detachment of Mongols. Genghis Khan refused to advance into the southern Russian steppes. Rus' received almost a fifteen-year respite, but could not take advantage of it: all attempts to unite and end civil strife were in vain.
In 1236, Genghis Khan's grandson Batu began a campaign against Rus'. Having conquered Volga Bulgaria, in January 1237 he invaded the Ryazan principality, ruined it and moved on to Vladimir. The city, despite fierce resistance, fell, and on March 4, 1238, he was killed in the Battle of the Sit River. Grand Duke Vladimirsky Yuri Vsevolodovich. Having taken Torzhok, the Mongols could go to Novgorod, but the spring thaw and heavy losses forced them to return to the Polovtsian steppes. This movement to the southeast is sometimes called the “Tatar round-up”: along the way, Batu robbed and burned Russian cities, which courageously fought against the invaders. The resistance of the residents of Kozelsk, nicknamed the “evil city” by their enemies, was especially fierce. In 1238-1239 The Mongolo-Tatars conquered the Murom, Pereyaslav, and Chernigov principalities.
North-Eastern Rus' was devastated. Batu turned south. The heroic resistance of the inhabitants of Kyiv was broken in December 1240. In 1241, the Principality of Galicia-Volyn fell. The Mongol hordes invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, reached Northern Italy and Germany, but, weakened by the desperate resistance of Russian troops, deprived of reinforcements, retreated and returned to the steppes Lower Volga region. Here in 1243 the state was created Golden Horde(capital Sarai-Batu), whose dominion the devastated Russian lands were forced to recognize. A system was established that went down in history as the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The essence of this system, humiliating in spiritual terms and predatory in economic terms, was that: the Russian principalities were not included in the Horde, but retained their own reigns; the princes, especially the Grand Duke of Vladimir, received a label to reign in the Horde, which confirmed their presence on the throne; they had to pay a large tribute ("exit") to the Mongol rulers. Population censuses were conducted and tribute collection standards were established. The Mongol garrisons left Russian cities, but before the beginning of the 14th century. The collection of tribute was carried out by authorized Mongolian officials- Baskaks. In case of disobedience (and anti-Mongol uprisings often broke out), punitive detachments - armies - were sent to Rus'.
Two important questions arise: why did the Russian principalities, having shown heroism and courage, fail to repel the conquerors? What consequences did the yoke have for Rus'? The answer to the first question is obvious: of course, the military superiority of the Mongol-Tatars was important (strict discipline, excellent cavalry, well-established intelligence, etc.), but the decisive role was played by the disunity of the Russian princes, their feuds, and inability to unite even in the face of a mortal threat.
The second question is controversial. Some historians point to the positive consequences of the yoke in the sense of creating the prerequisites for the creation of a single Russian state. Others emphasize that the yoke did not have a significant impact on the internal development of Rus'. Most scientists agree on the following: the raids caused severe material damage, were accompanied by the death of the population, the devastation of villages, and the destruction of cities; the tribute that went to the Horde depleted the country and made it difficult to restore and develop the economy; Southern Rus' actually became isolated from the North-Western and North-Eastern, their historical destinies diverged for a long time; Rus''s ties with European states were interrupted; tendencies towards arbitrariness, despotism, and autocracy of princes prevailed.
Having been defeated by the Mongol-Tatars, Rus' was able to successfully resist aggression from the north-west. By the 30s. XIII century The Baltic states, inhabited by tribes of Livs, Yatvingians, Estonians and others, found themselves in the power of the German crusading knights. The actions of the Crusaders were part of the policy of the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy to subjugate pagan peoples to the Catholic Church. That is why the main instruments of aggression were the spiritual knightly orders: the Order of the Swordsmen (founded in 1202) and Warband(founded at the end of the 12th century in Palestine). In 1237, these orders united into the Livonian Order. A powerful and aggressive military-political entity established itself on the borders with Novgorod land, ready to take advantage of the weakening of Rus' to include its northwestern lands in the zone of imperial influence.
In July 1240, the nineteen-year-old Novgorod prince Alexander defeated Birger's Swedish detachment at the mouth of the Neva in a fleeting battle. For his victory in the Battle of Neva, Alexander received the honorary nickname Nevsky. That same summer, the Livonian knights became more active: Izborsk and Pskov were captured, and the border fortress of Koporye was erected. Prince Alexander Nevsky managed to return Pskov in 1241, but the decisive battle took place on April 5, 1242 on the melted ice of Lake Peipus (hence the name - Battle of the Ice). Knowing about the favorite tactics of the knights - formation in the shape of a tapering wedge ("pig"), the commander used flanking and defeated the enemy. Dozens of knights died after falling through the ice, which could not withstand the weight of heavily armed infantry. The relative safety of the northwestern borders of Rus', Novgorod land was provided.
6. The emergence and development of the Moscow principality in the 14th-15th centuries. Formation of the Russian central state. + Battle of Kulikovo. + Ivan Kalita-Ivan
In the XIV-XV centuries. Specific Rus' persistently collected her “crushed parts into something whole. Moscow became the center of the state formed in this way” (V. O. Klyuchevsky). The process of collecting Russian lands led to the formation of a unified Russian state. Ruined, bloodless by the Mongol-Tatar yoke, divided into dozens of appanage principalities, the country for more than two centuries consistently, difficultly, overcoming obstacles, moved towards state and national unity. Prerequisites for the merger. The peculiarities of the process of unification of Russian lands were that its economic and social prerequisites matured gradually, as the process itself gained strength, lagging behind it. Population growth, the restoration of the destroyed economy, the development of abandoned and new lands, the spread of the three-field system, the gradual revival of cities and trade - all this contributed to the unification, but hardly made it really necessary. Decisive preconditions have developed in the political sphere. The main impulse was the increasingly persistent desire for liberation from the Horde yoke, from patronage and prodding, to gain complete independence, to renounce humiliating trips to the Horde for the label of the great reign of Vladimir, from paying tribute, from extortion. The struggle for unification merged with the struggle against the Horde. It required the exertion of all forces, unity, and a rigid guiding principle. This beginning could only be the grand ducal power, ready to act firmly, decisively, recklessly, even despotically. The princes relied on their servants - the military in the first place - and paid them with land transferred into conditional ownership (from these servants and this land ownership the nobility, the local system, would later grow serfdom )., common faith - Orthodoxy, language, historical memory of the people, who kept memories of lost unity and the “bright, bright and beautifully decorated” Russian Land. Orthodox Church firmly supported the Moscow princes in their efforts to unify the country. Kalita managed to accumulate considerable funds, which were spent on purchasing new lands and strengthening the military power of the principality. Relations between Moscow and the Horde were built during this period on the same foundations - with correction, payment of tribute, frequent visits to the khan's capital, with ostentatious humility and readiness to serve. Ivan Kalita managed to save his principality from new invasions. “Forty years of great silence,” according to Klyuchevsky, allowed two generations to be born and grow up, “to whose nerves the impressions of childhood did not instill the unconscious horror of their grandfathers and fathers before the Tatar: they went to the Kulikovo Field.” Second half of the 14th century. In the 60-70s. XIV century Prince Dmitry, grandson of Ivan Kalita, managed to decide in favor of Moscow long-standing and very important problems. Firstly, the claims of neighboring princes to a great reign were repulsed. The label remained in Moscow. Secondly, it was possible to avert the military threat from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, whose ruler, Prince Olgerd, actively participated in internal Russian politics and organized three campaigns against Moscow. Thirdly - and this is especially important - Moscow achieved a decisive advantage over its traditional rival, the Tver Principality. Twice (in 1371 and 1375) Prince Mikhail of Tver received a label for the great reign in the Horde, and twice Prince Dmitry refused to recognize him as the Grand Duke. In 1375, Moscow organized a campaign against Tver, in which almost all the princes of North-Eastern Rus' participated. Mikhail was forced to recognize the seniority of the Moscow prince and abandon the label of great reign. Fourthly, for the first time in more than a century, the Moscow prince felt strong enough to go into open conflict with the Horde, challenge it, relying on the support of the majority of Russian principalities and lands. The Battle of Kulikovo brought the Moscow prince Dmitry the honorary nickname Donskoy. The victory was difficult. The ferocity of the battle lives in the words of a contemporary: “Oh bitter hour! Oh, the time of blood is filled!” whole line the most important stage in the spiritual and moral revival of Rus', the formation of its national identity. First half of the 15th century The main event of this stage was the feudal war of 1425-1453. Between the Moscow prince Vasily II the Dark and the coalition of appanage princes, which was headed by his uncle Yuri, and after the death of Yuri - his second cousins Vasily Kosoy and Ivan Shemyaka. The long period of unrest ended with the victory of the Moscow prince.: Boyar Duma (council of the nobility under the Grand Duke), Treasury (central administrative body, from which the authorities were later separated central control- orders; the concept of “order” was first used in 1512), Palaces (government bodies of the newly annexed territories). The country was divided into counties (governed by governors), volosts and camps (governed by volostels). The governors and volostels lived off of feedings - fees from the local population. In 1497, the Code of Laws was adopted - the first legislative act of a unified Russian state. It, in particular, contained a new rule on a single period for the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another (two weeks before and after November 26 - St. George's Day). From the end of the 15th century. The new term “Russia” was increasingly used.
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FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
ALL-RUSSIAN CORRESPONDENCE INSTITUTE OF FINANCIAL AND ECONOMIC
Test
in the discipline "National History"
on the topic of: Rus''s struggle against external aggression inXIIIcentury
Moscow 2010
1. Mongol-Tatar conquest of Rus'
2. Rus'’s struggle with Western expansion
3. Test
4. List of used literature
1. Mongol-Tatar conquest of Rus'
The Mongol-Tatar invasion played a huge role in the history of our country. After all, the rule of the nomads lasted for almost two and a half centuries, and during this time the yoke managed to leave a significant imprint on the fate of the Russian people. This period in the history of our country is very important, since it predetermined further development Ancient Rus'.
A few words about the state of the Russian army at the time of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. The Russian princely squads were an excellent army at that time. Their weapons were famous far beyond the borders of Rus', but these squads were small in number and numbered only a few hundred people. This was too little to organize the country’s defense against a well-prepared aggressive enemy. The princely squads were unsuitable for action in large forces under a single command, according to a single plan. The main part of the Russian army was made up of urban and rural militias, which were recruited at the moment of danger. About their weapons and vocational training we can say that they left much to be desired. Russian cities with their fortifications could not be an insurmountable obstacle to the powerful siege technology of the nomads. The population of large cities was 20-30 thousand people and in the event of an attack they could field up to 10 thousand defenders, and since the city, as a rule, resisted alone, an army of 60-70 thousand could break the resistance of the defenders within a week. From the above, we can conclude that the Russian state consisted of several large principalities, constantly competing with each other, and did not possess one large army that would be able to resist the armada of nomads.
In 1223, the 30,000-strong army of Subdey and Ocheuchi, having completed the defeat of the states of Central Asia, passed through Northern Iran, entered the Caucasus, destroying several ancient and rich cities, defeating Georgian troops, penetrated through the Shirvan Gorge into the Northern Caucasus and clashed with the Alans.
The Alans united with the Cumans who were nomadic there, as the Persian historian Rashid ad-Din testifies, and fought together, “but none of them remained victorious.” Then the Mongol-Tatars persuaded the Polovtsian leaders to leave the lands of the Alans, and then “defeated the Alans, having done everything in their power in terms of robbery and murder.”
Battle of the Kalka River
“In 1223, an unknown people appeared; an unheard of army came, the godless Tatars, about whom no one knows well who they are and where they came from, and what kind of language they have, and what tribe they are, and what kind of faith they have... The Polovtsy are not could resist them and ran to the Dnieper.
Their Khan Kotyan was the father-in-law of Mstislav Galitsky; he came with a bow to the prince, his son-in-law, and to all the Russian princes..., and said: The Tatars took our land today, and tomorrow they will take yours, so protect us; If you don’t help us, then we will be cut off today, and you will be cut off tomorrow.”
The princes decided to help Kotyan. The hike began in April when the rivers were in full flood. The troops were heading down the Dnieper. Command was exercised prince of Kyiv Mstislav Romanovich the Good and Mstislav Mstislavich the Udal, who were cousins. Just before the Russian offensive, Mongol-Tatar ambassadors arrived in Rus', who assured that they would not touch the Russians if they did not go to the aid of their neighbors.
On the 17th day of the campaign, the army stopped near Olshen, somewhere on the banks of the Ros. There he was found by the second Tatar embassy. Unlike the first time, when the ambassadors were killed, these were released.
Immediately after crossing the Dnieper, Russian troops encountered the enemy’s vanguard, chased it for 8 days, and on the eighth day they reached the bank of the Kalka River (now the Kalchik River, a tributary of the Kalmius River, in the Donetsk region, Ukraine). Here Mstislav the Udaloy and some princes immediately crossed the Kalka, leaving Mstislav of Kyiv on the other bank.
According to the Laurentian Chronicle, the battle took place on May 31, 1223. The troops that crossed the river were almost completely destroyed. The onslaught of the brave squad of Mstislav the Udal, who almost broke through the ranks of the nomads, was not supported by other princes and all his attacks were repulsed. The Polovtsian detachments, unable to withstand the blows of the Mongol cavalry, fled, disrupting the battle formations of the Russian army. The camp of Mstislav of Kyiv, set up on the other bank and heavily fortified, the troops of Jebe and Subedei stormed for 3 days and were able to take only by cunning and deceit, when the prince, believing the promises of Subedei, stopped resistance. As a result of this, Mstislav the Good and his entourage were brutally destroyed, Mstislav the Udaloy fled. The Russian losses in this battle were very high, six princes were killed, and only a tenth of the soldiers returned home.
The Battle of Kalka was lost not so much because of disagreements between the rival princes, but because of historical factors. Firstly, Jebe’s army was tactically and positionally completely superior to the united regiments of the Russian princes, who had in their ranks mostly princely squads, reinforced in this case by the Polovtsians. This entire army did not have sufficient unity, was not trained in combat tactics, based more on the personal courage of each warrior. Secondly, such a united army also needed a sole commander, recognized not only by the leaders, but also by the warriors themselves, and who would exercise unified command. Thirdly, the Russian troops, having made a mistake in assessing the enemy’s forces, were also unable to correctly choose the battle site, the terrain of which was completely favorable to the Tatars. However, in fairness it must be said that at that time, not only in Rus', but also in Europe, there would not have been an army capable of competing with the formations of Genghis Khan.
The army of Jebe and Subedey, having defeated the militia of the southern Russian princes on Kalka, entered the Chernigov land, reached Novgorod-Seversky and turned back, bringing fear and destruction everywhere with it. In the same 1223, Jebe and Subedey raided Volga Bulgaria, but failed. The Arab historian Ibn al-Asir described these events as follows: “The Bulgars ambushed them in several places, opposed them and, luring them until they went beyond the ambush site, attacked them from the rear.”
The campaign, which lasted two and a half years, allowed the Mongol-Tatars to directly become acquainted with Russian troops and the fortifications of Russian cities; they received information from prisoners about the situation inside the Russian principalities - in-depth strategic reconnaissance was carried out.
Conquest of northeastern Rus'
The Military Council (kurultai) of 1235 announced an all-Mongol campaign to the west. The Great Khan Udegei sent Batu, the head of the Juchi ulus, as reinforcement to conquer Volga Bulgaria, Diit-Kinchak and Rus' with the main forces of the Mongol army under the command of Subedey. In total, 14 “princes”, descendants of Genghis Khan, took part in the campaign with their hordes. All winter the Mongols gathered in the upper reaches of the Irtysh, preparing for a big campaign. In the spring of 1236, countless horsemen, countless herds, endless carts with military equipment and siege weapons moved west.
In the fall of 1236, their army attacked Volga Bulgaria.
Possessing a huge superiority of forces, they broke through the Bulgar defense line, cities were taken one after another. Bulgaria was terribly destroyed and burned. In the spring of 1237, Subedey's troops advanced into the Caspian steppes and staged a raid on the Cumans, most of whom were killed, the rest fled to Russian lands. In battles with their fast and elusive opponents, the khans used “round-up” tactics: they walked across the steppes in a wide front of small detachments, gradually encircling the Polovtsian nomads. The campaign was led by three high-ranking khans: Guyuk, Mankhe and Mengu. The war in the Polovtsian steppes dragged on throughout the summer. But as a result, the Mongol-Tatars subjugated almost all the lands between the Volga and Don rivers. The most powerful Polovtsian khan, Yuri Konchakovich, was defeated.
Another large army, led by Batu, as well as the khans Ordu, Berke, Buri and Kulman, fought on the right bank of the Middle Volga River in the lands of the Burats, Arzhans and Mordovians. The events of this campaign are little known.
Thus, the peoples of the Lower and Middle Volga region put up stubborn resistance, which delayed Batu’s advance and only by the fall of 1237 was he able to concentrate all the main forces for the invasion of North-Eastern Rus'. The Russian princes could not have been unaware of the impending offensive. They received information from Russian and Bulgarian merchants. And the situation with the conquest of the southeastern neighbors gave rise to certain thoughts. But despite this, after the battle on the Kalka River, strife between the princes did not stop. Consequently, there was no single army under a single command to repel the onslaught of a powerful enemy, and the one system defense of the southern steppe borders. Many princes hoped for strong wooden fortresses, not taking into account the complex siege technology available to the Mongol-Tatars.
In the fall of 1237, Batu was placed at the head of the united army. In December 1237 the rivers rose. On Sura, a tributary of the Volga, on Voronezh, a tributary of the Don, Batu’s troops appeared. Winter opened the road along the ice of rivers to North-Eastern Rus'.
Based on geographical and demographic considerations, as well as military calculations, it can be assumed that Batu brought 30-40 thousand horsemen to Rus'. Even such a seemingly small army, the Russian sovereign princes had nothing to oppose.
The first city that stood in the way of the conquerors was Ryazan. For the Ryazan princes this was a complete surprise. They were accustomed to raids on Rus' by the Polovtsians and other nomadic tribes in the summer-autumn period. Khan Batu, having invaded the principality, presented an ultimatum, where he demanded “tithes in everything: in princes, in horses, in people.” The prince, in order to gain time, sent his son Fyodor to Khan Batu with rich gifts, and in the meantime he himself began to quickly prepare for battle. He sent messengers to Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir and Prince of Chernigov for help. But both of them refused the Ryazan prince. Despite this, the people of Ryazan decided to stand to the death for their land and to the ultimatum they replied: “If we are all gone, then everything will be yours!”
Together with the prince of Ryazan, several more “helpful” princes - the Pronsky, Murom and Kolomna principalities - moved towards the Mongol-Tatars. But their squads did not have time to reach the fortified lines on the steppe border. Khan Batu interrupted Fedor's embassy and moved his cavalry to Ryazan land. Somewhere “near the borders of Ryazan” the battle described in “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan” took place. During the battle, many “local princes, strong commanders and daring troops” died. With a few soldiers, Prince Yuri Igorevich broke through the ring of enemies and went to Ryazan to organize the defense of his capital. Having been defeated in battle, the Ryazan residents hoped to sit behind strong city walls. Ryazan stood on the high right bank of the Oka River, below the mouth of the Pronya River. The city was well fortified: on three sides it was surrounded by ditches and powerful ramparts up to 10 meters high, on the fourth side a steep bank broke off towards the Oka River; wooden walls with numerous towers stood on the ramparts. The population from the surrounding villages and hamlets came running under the walls of the city, and boyar detachments came from distant estates. The entire city population took up arms.
The siege of Ryazan began on December 16, 1237. The Mongol-Tatars surrounded the city so that no one could leave it. The city walls were shelled around the clock from vices (stone-throwing machines). Day and night there were attacks on the city. The well-aimed Mongol archers fired continuously. The killed Mongols were replaced by new ones, but the city never received reinforcements. On December 21, a decisive assault on Ryazan began. They managed to break through the city’s defenses in several directions at once. Heavy fighting broke out in the streets. As a result, all the warriors and most of the inhabitants were brutally destroyed. An army of nomads stood near Ryazan for ten days - they plundered the city, divided the spoils, and plundered neighboring villages.
Before Batu lay several roads into the depths of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Since Batu was faced with the task of conquering all of Rus' in one winter, he headed to Vladimir along the Oka, through Moscow and Kolomna. On the way, they were unexpectedly attacked by a detachment led by Evpatiy Kolovrat, a Ryazan resident. His detachment numbered about 1,700 people. The nomads were so confused that they mistook them for those risen from the dead. But the 5 soldiers who were captured replied: “We are the war of Grand Duke Yuri Ingorevich - Ryazan, in the regiment of Evpatiy Kolovrat. We have been sent to honor you and honor you honestly.” Batu decided to send his brother-in-law Khoztovrul with the regiments to beat Kolovrat. But Khoztovrul lost, and then Batu sent many of his troops to Evpatiy. In the battle, Kolovrat died, and his head was given to Batu. The Khan was surprised at the courage of the Russian soldiers and ordered the release of the captured part of the squad.
The Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich sent reinforcements to Kolomna, which covered the only convenient route to Vladimir in winter - along the Moscow and Klyazma rivers. The troops were led by the eldest son of Prince Vladimir, Vsevolod. The surviving Ryazan squads, led by Prince Roman, also came here. Chronicles claim that even Novgorodians came. The experienced governor of Vladimir Eremey Glebovich was also near Kolomna. The city itself was sufficiently fortified in case the troops failed in the field. In terms of the number of troops and the tenacity of the battle, the battle near Kolomna can be considered one of the most significant events of the invasion. Solovyov writes: “The Tatars surrounded them at Kolomna and fought hard; there was a great slaughter; they killed Prince Roman and the governor Eremey, and Vsevolod with a small retinue ran to Vladimir.” In the battle of Kolomna, Genghisid Khan Kulkan died - perhaps the only case in the entire history of the Mongol conquests.
Having defeated the Vladimir-Suzdal regiments near Kolomna, Batu came to Moscow, which was defended by a detachment of the son of Grand Duke Yuri - Vladimir and governor Philip Nyanka. The city was taken by storm on the 5th day. As a result, Moscow was completely destroyed. Prince Vladimir was captured and the governor was killed. On the way from Ryazan to Vladimir, the conquerors had to storm every city, repeatedly fight with Russian warriors in the “open field”; defend against surprise attacks from ambushes. The heroic resistance of the ordinary Russian people held back the conquerors.
On February 3, the vanguard of the conquerors approached Vladimir. The city of Vladimir was surrounded by high wooden walls and fortified with powerful stone towers. It was covered on three sides by rivers: from the south - the Klyazma River, from the north and east - the Lybid River. The Golden Gate rose above the western wall of the city - the most powerful defensive structure ancient Vladimir. Behind the outer contour of the Vladimir fortifications were interior walls and the ramparts of the Middle or Monomakh city. And finally, in the middle of the capital there was a stone Kremlin - Detinets. Thus, the enemies needed to break through three defensive lines before they could reach the city center - the Princely Court and the Assumption Cathedral. But there were not enough warriors for the numerous towers and walls. At the princely council, it was decided to leave the surviving army in the city and supplement it with the city militia, and the Grand Duke himself to go with his closest squad to the north and gather new armies. On the eve of the siege, Yuri left with his nephews Vasilko, Vsevolod and Vladimir to the Sit River and began to gather regiments against the Tatars. The defense of the city was led by the sons of the Grand Duke - Vsevolod and Mstislav, as well as the governor Peter Oslyadyakovich.
The Mongol-Tatars approached from the west. Before this, the conquerors took Suzdal by storm, and without any particular difficulties. On February 4th, a small detachment arrived and offered to surrender. In response, arrows and stones flew. Then the Mongols surrounded the city on all sides, cutting it off from outside world and the siege of the city began. On February 6, the installation of heavy throwing weapons and shelling began. They managed to break through the walls in some places, but the Mongols were unable to penetrate the city. Early in the morning of February 7, a general assault on the city of Vladimir began. The main blow came from the west. As a result of the shelling wooden wall south of the Golden Gate was destroyed and the Mongol-Tatars broke into the city. They broke through the Irininy, Copper and Volga gates to Detinets, where there were almost no soldiers left. The princely family, boyars and townspeople took refuge in the Assumption Cathedral. They categorically refused to surrender to the mercy of the winner and were burned. The city of Vladimir itself was completely ruined.
Yuri stood with his troops near Yaroslavl. Having learned about the death of the capital and the death of his loved ones, the prince, according to the chronicle, “cry out with a great voice with tears, crying for the orthodox Christian faith and the Church.” “It would be better for me to die than to live in the world,” he said, “for which reason I was left alone.” Vasilko, who arrived in time with the Rostov squad, strengthened him for a feat of arms.
Vladimir was the last city of North-Eastern Rus', which was besieged by the united forces of Batu Khan. The Mongol-Tatars had to make a decision so that three tasks would be completed at once: to cut off Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich from Novgorod, defeat the remnants of the Vladimir forces and pass along all river and trade routes, destroying cities - centers of resistance. Batu's troops were divided into three parts: The first moved north to Rostov and further to the Volga (Rostov surrendered without a fight, as did Uglich); Separate detachments advanced to the Volga River and defeated Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Ksnyatin, Kashin and other cities. The second part went east along the ice of the Klyazma River, defeated the city of Starodub and reached the middle Volga - to the city of Gorodets; the third moved to the northwest through Pereyaslavl-Zalesky, Yuryev, Dimitrov, Volok-Lamsky to Tver and Torzhok. As a result of the February campaigns of 1238, the Mongol-Tatars destroyed Russian cities in the territory from the Middle Volga to Tver (fourteen cities in total).
By the beginning of March, the invaders' detachments reached the border of the Middle Volga. Yuri Vsevolodovich, who was gathering troops on the Sit River, found himself in close proximity to these detachments. The unexpected attack of the Mongol-Tatars predetermined the outcome of this battle (March 4, 1238). Few of the Russian soldiers left this terrible battle alive, but the enemies paid a heavy price for the victory. Saint Yuri was hacked to pieces in a desperate battle. Vasilko, wounded, was brought to Batu’s headquarters.
The Tatars forced him to “follow the Nogai custom, to be in their will and to fight for them.” The holy prince angrily rejected the idea of betraying his Motherland and Orthodoxy. “You will never take me away from the Christian faith,” said the holy prince, remembering the ancient Christian confessors. “And having tormented him much, he put him to death, throwing him into the forest of Shernsky.” Thus, the holy Prince Vasilko of Rostov gave up his soul to God, becoming in his death like the holy passion-bearer Boris, the first of the princes of Rostov, whom he imitated in life. Like Saint Boris, Vasilko was not yet thirty years old.
Bishop Kirill of Rostov, coming to the battlefield, buried the dead Orthodox soldiers, found the body of Saint Prince Yuri (only his severed head could not be found in the piles of prostrate bodies), and transferred the honorable remains to Rostov - to the Assumption Cathedral. The body of Saint Vasilko was found in the Shernsky forest by the son of a priest and brought to Rostov. There the prince's wife, children, Bishop Kirill and all the people of Rostov met the body of their beloved prince with bitter tears and buried him under the arches of the cathedral church.
At the end of March 1238, a “roundup” of invaders moved from the Volga to the south, towards Novgorod. Torzhok, standing on Batu’s way, lasted 2 weeks and was taken only on March 23. From there Batu moved further along the Seliger route, but before reaching Novgorod a hundred miles he turned south (from the place called “Ignach-Cross” in the chronicle) and went to Smolensk.
The turn away from Novgorod is usually explained by spring floods. But there are other explanations: firstly, the campaign did not fit into the deadlines, and secondly, Batu was unable to defeat the united forces of North-Eastern Rus' in one or two battles, using numerical and tactical superiority. The difficult and bloody campaign against the northeastern principalities exhausted and bled the Mongol-Tatars. It is likely that Batu did not dare to fight with intact and full-blooded Novgorod and Pskov.
The Mongols failed to take Smolensk. On the approaches to the city, the enemy was met by Smolensk regiments and pushed back. Batu decided to turn northeast and went to the city of Kozelsk. The chronicles do not contain the exact date of the Mongol-Tatars’ approach to this city, and most scientists claim that it was besieged back in April 1238. Kozelsk defended for 51 days, but was taken. Batu called it “Evil City” and ordered it to be razed to the ground.
Batu did not reach Vologda, Beloozero, or Veliky Ustyug, and behind him all of Chud Zavolotskaya and Novgorod possessions remained untouched.
The defeat of Southern Rus' and of Eastern Europe
In 1239, the Mongol-Tatars invaded Southern Rus'. At the same time, they followed the path in which the Polovtsy raided. Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny was taken, which no one had ever achieved before. The city was well fortified: it was surrounded on three sides by the high banks of the Trubezh and Alta rivers, as well as high ramparts and walls. But the Tatars managed to take and plunder the city and completely destroy the Church of St. Michael.
The next blow was aimed at the Principality of Chernigov. The Chernigov Detinets (Kremlin), located on a high hill at the confluence of the Strizhen River with the Desna, was surrounded by a “roundabout city”, behind which stretched a three-kilometer rampart covering the “suburb”. By the autumn of 1239 the Tatars surrounded the city of Chernigov. They were met with an army by Prince Mstislav Glebovich (cousin of Mikhail of Chernigov). There was a “fierce battle,” but the Russians lost. October 18, 1239 Chernigov was taken, after which the Tatars destroyed the cities of Putivl, Glukov, Vyr, Rylsk.
Batu began the invasion of Southern Rus' and Eastern Europe in the fall of 1240, again gathering under his command all the people devoted to himself. Batu approached Kyiv in November 1240. “Batu came to Kyiv in heavy force, the Tatar force surrounded the city, and nothing was heard from the creaking of carts, from the roar of camels, from the neighing of horses; the Russian land was filled with warriors.” Kyiv was then reigned by Daniil Romanovich Galitsky, who left the city, leaving governor Dmitry to defend the city. The Tatars, from the side where the forest adjoined the city gates, fired at the walls with stone-throwing guns around the clock. As a result, the walls collapsed and the Mongol-Tatars burst into the city in the evening. During the night the people of Kiev built new wall around the Tithe Church, but the Tatars broke through the defenses of Kiev and after a 9-day siege and assault on December 6, 1240, Kyiv fell.
After this, Batu’s main forces moved further west to Vladimir-Volynsky. The invaders were unable to take the cities of Kremnets, Danilov and Kholm. The fortified towns were excellently suited for defense. Vladimir-Volynsky was taken by the Mongol-Tatars after a short siege. All the cities of the Volyn and Galician lands were subjected to a terrible defeat.
In the spring of 1241, hordes of Mongol-Tatars crossed the border of Rus' and invaded Hungary. The Hungarians offered fierce resistance in the passes of the Carpathians. But Batu crossed the mountains in April 1241. At this time, the Hungarian king Bella II gathered 60 thousand soldiers and set out from Pest. On April 11, a battle began near the Sayo River. The king did not receive any support and was defeated. After a 3-day siege, the city of Pest fell, and then the cities of Arat, Perth, Egres, Temeshever were devastated.
That same spring, the Mongol-Tatars moved to Poland. At the head of the Mongol army were Batu's brothers - Baydar and Ordu. The nomads captured the cities of Lublin, Zavichos, Sandomierz. On the way to the large city of Krakow, they fought with the Krakow and Sandomor regiments (near Krakow). The Mongol-Tatars won and captured the city itself, but according to legend, a handful of brave men took refuge in the Cathedral of St. Andrew and were never defeated. They also failed to capture the city of Wroclaw.
Czech King Wenceslas I sent 40 thousand soldiers to help the Poles. April 9, 1241 near Legnica, the allied forces were defeated, but the Mongols failed to take Legnica and Ratibozh. The Czech Republic was preparing for a bitter struggle; at the Battle of Olomouc in 1242, the Mongol-Tatars were defeated.
Then the invaders invaded the lands of Bukovina, Moldova and Romania. Slovakia, which was under Hungarian rule, suffered seriously from their attack. Batu still advanced west to the Adriatic Sea, invaded Silesia and defeated the Duke of Silesia. Thus, the path to Germany was open, but the troops were exhausted and the khan turned his troops back to the east, never reaching the “Sea of the Franks” (according to the will of Genghis Khan).
Horde yoke
The bulk of Batu's troops returned to the Caspian steppes, where the city of Sarai was founded - the center of a new state, which later received the name Golden Horde. For some time, this state was in nominal subordination to the Great Mongol Khan, residing in Karakarum (on the territory of Mongolia). Over time, the Horde khans began to enjoy complete independence. During its heyday, the Golden Horde ruled vast territories of Eastern Europe, Western Siberia, and Central Asia. The Mongols traveling with Batu were relatively quickly assimilated by the local Turkic-speaking population, merging into a single ethnic group called the “Tatars.” The leading branch of the Horde economy remained nomadic cattle breeding; the transition to a sedentary existence dragged on for long time. The khans in power had to constantly take into account the opinion of the nobility and the Muslim clergy, especially from the 30s of the 14th century. after the adoption of Islam as the state religion.
Finding themselves under the rule of the Mongols, the Russian lands were forced to admit their vassal dependence on the descendants of Genghis Khan. Russian princes (and above all the eldest among them, the Grand Duke of Vladimir), as well as the Metropolitan, had to be approved by special charters (labels). The khans widely used the practice of hostages, bribery, murder, and deception, trying to take advantage of the lack of political unity in Rus'. The main part of the taxes imposed on Russian lands was tribute, or “exit”. At first it was collected in kind, and then it was transferred to “silver”, i.e. for money. There were also urgent demands for taxes, the so-called “requests”; trips of representatives of the khan’s government were accompanied by demands for gifts. The population had to feed the khan's ambassadors and messengers and their horses, supply them with means of transportation, etc. Military service was very difficult, due to which Russian troops participated in the Mongol conquest of Iran, Southern China, etc.
To supervise the Russian lands, at first the khans kept governors in Russian cities - Baskaks, who gradually curtailed their activities by the end of the 13th century. Particular dissatisfaction of the Russian population was caused by the censuses carried out by the khans in order to take into account the tax-paying population, the first of which took place in 1257. Until 1262, tribute in Rus' was collected by tax-farmers-besermen sent by the khans, mainly from among Muslim merchants. The violence of tax farmers caused uprisings in a number of Russian lands, which was an important reason that gradually by the end of the 13th century. The Russian princes themselves began to collect Horde tribute for sending to the khans.
Russian princes and the Golden Horde
After the establishment of vassal dependence on the Mongol Empire, two lines can be traced in the policy of the Russian princes towards the conquerors. The first of them was the desire to immediately achieve liberation from Mongol rule and provide open armed resistance to the Horde. In conditions of significant inequality of power, such actions were heroic, but hopeless. Attempts by some princes (for example, Daniil Galitsky) to continue the fight against the Mongols were in vain.
The second, more cautious and flexible line was implemented in the actions of the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich and, especially, his son, Alexander Nevsky (Grand Duke of Vladimir in 1252-1263). This policy was based on the fact that, in addition to the danger from the east, Rus' was threatened by the crusader threat of knightly orders in the north-west. Maintaining peaceful relations with the khans of the Golden Horde, taking advantage of their contradictions with the rulers of Karakorum, Alexander Nevsky in every possible way sought to strengthen his power as the eldest among the Russian princes. In this policy, the Prince of Vladimir was supported by the leadership of the Russian Orthodox Church, who saw for themselves a greater danger in the expansion of the Roman Catholic Church than in the tolerant rulers of the Golden Horde. Not all contemporaries approved of this moderate line of action towards the Mongols. However, when Alexander Nevsky died, it soon became obvious that this extraordinary statesman and politician apparently pursued the only realistic policy under those conditions, which made it possible for the survival of Russian lands.
Unfortunately, the successors of Alexander Nevsky were unable to appreciate the complexity of the historical moment that had come. A fierce struggle for the grand-ducal throne once again unfolded in Rus'. In the internecine war, the Russian princes themselves more than once in the second half of the 13th century. They brought Mongol armies into Rus', which robbed the population and ruined the country. The fragmentation of the Russian land continued, and the authority of the Grand Duke of Vladimir weakened. The country's economy was in decline, many cities fell into disrepair. Cultural values The Russian land suffered terrible damage, many churches and handicrafts were destroyed, books and icons were burned in the fire. The population decreased sharply; the best cadres of craftsmen, artisans, and architects were either destroyed or captured.
All these reasons undoubtedly contributed to a certain slowdown in the development of Rus' in comparison with the countries of Western Europe. According to A.S. Pushkin, “Russia had a high destiny, its vast expanses absorbed the forces of the Mongols and stopped their invasion at the very edge of Europe.
The resulting enlightenment was saved by a torn and dying Russia.”
2. Rus'’s struggle with Western expansion
The tornado of Batu's invasion threw Rus' far back in its development, economic and cultural. The towns and villages lay in ruins, tens of thousands of inhabitants fell under the Horde sabers; others were taken captive on lassos, and they ended up in slave markets, in the service of new masters, in craft workshops or in Horde tumens, to enrich the khans, murzas and ordinary Horde citizens, to serve their ambitious goals, to decorate their homes and cities. Rus', with its tragic struggle and feat, saved Western Europe from a pogrom similar to what it itself suffered. When the Russian lands lay in ruins, there, far away, they continued to accumulate wealth and create masterpieces.
When, for example, the Church of the Tithes collapsed in Kyiv, the construction of the amazing, airy Holy Chapel on the Isle of Cité was completed in Paris, which still amazes with its beauty everyone who sees it in the courtyard of the Palace of Justice.
The tragic greatness of the feat accomplished by Russia is undoubtedly for the civilization of Europe. She repaid her by sending her conquerors to her borders.
The appearance of the Germans in the eastern part of the Baltic dates back to the second half of the 12th century. At first they were merchants and Christian missionaries. Following them, crusading knights appeared, no longer striving to conquer new lands with the sword, rather than with the cross. The beginning of active German expansion in the Eastern Baltic is associated with the name of Bishop Albert. He founded the city of Riga at the mouth of the Dvina and brought there many German colonists. In 1202 Albert founded a military-religious organization in the Baltic states - the Order of the Knights of the Sword (Sword Bearers), modeled on the military orders created by the crusaders in Palestine.
The Russian princes of the Principality of Polotsk, whose sphere of influence included the Eastern Baltic states, did not pay serious attention to the first stage of German colonization. They became concerned only when the aliens erected stone castles and fortresses there. In 1203-1206. Prince Vladimir of Polotsk tried to knock the Germans out of their fortresses, but to no avail. The culmination of this confrontation was the unsuccessful Russian siege of the fortresses of Golm and Riga. The defeat of Vladimir allowed the German knights to stand firmly in the Baltic states.
Thanks to weapons and military tactics, relatively small detachments of German knights were able to achieve significant success in battles with the Baltic tribes. During the same period, the Swedes established themselves in Finland. Now the aggressors sought to cut off the Slavs from the sea and achieve complete control over the trade routes passing through the Baltic.
It is appropriate to add here that the defeat of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204. sharply aggravated the conflict between Catholicism and Orthodoxy. Thus, the financially constrained Western knighthood received a new justification for its conquests in the east of Europe, which were seen as a struggle for the conversion of pagans to Christianity. Now heretics, that is, Orthodox Christians, could also act as “converts.” Ancient Rus' becomes the object of military-spiritual expansion, coordinated from the center of the then Western world - Catholic Rome. For the Roman Church, the expanses of the Russian Plain represented not only a desirable field missionary activity, but also a huge potential source of financial income (in the form of church fees, donations, indulgences, etc.). The main target of the Western onslaught was the northwestern lands of Rus', where the possessions of the Novgorod Republic were located.
Russian-Swedish-German wars of the 13th century. on the northwestern borders of Rus' can be divided into three stages. The first stage is associated with the German onslaught on the Slavic city of Yuryev in 1224. The second was marked by a bilateral Swedish-German onslaught in 1240-1242. The third stage took place in the second half of the 13th century.
The first object of German expansion into the East Slavic lands was the city of Yuryev (now Tartu), founded by Yaroslav the Wise. Yuriev and its environs remained the last region of the Peipus land unconquered by the Germans. All Baltic residents who did not want to submit to the power of the crusaders found protection here.
In August 1224 Yuryev was besieged by an army of German knights. The city was defended by 200 Russian soldiers led by Prince Vyachko, as well as local residents. It should be noted that the time for the attack was chosen well, since literally a year before, the armed forces of the ancient Russian principalities were defeated by the Mongols on the Kalka River in 1223. and even if they wanted to, they would not be able to organize a strong rebuff to the new aggressor.
Having besieged Yuryev, the crusaders built a wooden tower nearby, from which they fired at the fortress with stones, arrows and hot iron, trying to set fire to the fortress walls. But the city’s defenders did not give up and steadfastly repelled the onslaught. When asked to leave Yuryev freely, Vyachko, who was expecting help from the Novgorodians, refused. Then the Germans launched an attack, but were repulsed. Encouraged by their success, the defenders of Yuriev made a sortie, trying to destroy the wooden tower that had brought them so much trouble. They rolled red-hot wheels out of the fortress and tried to set fire to the tower. A fierce fight broke out around her. Meanwhile, taking advantage of the distraction of the besieged forces, some of the knights again rushed to attack the fortress. Having overcome the rampart, we climbed the walls and burst inside. The rest of the army rushed after them. In the ensuing massacre, Yuryev’s defenders (including Vyachko) were destroyed. Of all the men in the city, the Germans saved the life of only one, gave him a horse and sent him to Novgorod to announce their victory. Thus fell the last stronghold of the Russians in the Baltic states, which has since received a new name - Dorpat.
The further history of repelling the onslaught of knights on the northwestern borders is connected with the significant assistance provided to the Novgorodians by Vladimir-Suzdal Russia. Its princes took an active part in the defense of their northern neighbors. In the winter of 1234 Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich and his son Alexander came to the aid of Novgorod. The united Russian squads attacked the crusaders near the Emajõge River (in the vicinity of Yuryev). Many knights who tried to cross the river fell through the ice and drowned. After this, the crusaders were forced to make peace with Novgorod. 2 years later, the German knights were defeated by the Lithuanians in the Battle of Siauliai. It seemed that the time was right to strike another blow at the Crusaders and end their dominance in the Baltic states forever. However, the Russians did not take advantage of the given chance and did not join forces with the Lithuanians, with whom they were then at enmity. Soon the invasion of Batu began, which for a long time deprived the Russians of the opportunity to deal with the formidable and dangerous Western enemy.
Alexander Nevsky and his role in repelling the onslaught from the northwest
Unlike the Russians, the Germans were not going to miss their chance. In 1237 the remnants of the Order of the Swords united with the Teutonic Order into a single Livonian Order. In the same year, Pope Gregory blessed the German knights for a new campaign against Russian lands. In 1238 The Swedes, who by that time had captured Finland, also received a blessing for a campaign against Rus'. The time for the offensive was chosen well - North-Eastern Rus' was weakened by Batu's invasion.
The new onslaught was already coordinated. In 1239 The Germans and Swedes began negotiations on joint actions against northern Rus', which they sought to conquer with a simultaneous bilateral onslaught from the west and north. The negotiations clearly outlined the spheres of German-Swedish influence in the conquered lands. Izborsk and Pskov went to the Germans, and the Neva basin to the Swedes. The conditional border between the zones of action of the German and Swedish crusaders passed in the Novgorod region - main goal invaders' campaign.
The Swedes were the first to launch a campaign against Novgorod. In July 1240 their army under the command of the son-in-law of the Swedish king, Jarl Birger (5 thousand people), on 100 ships, entered the Neva from the Gulf of Finland and camped near the Izhora River. The significance of the campaign for the Roman Church is evidenced by the fact that Birger’s army included Catholic bishops. The Swedes intended to capture the mouth of the Neva, and if successful, go to Novgorod.
Having set up camp near Izhora, Birger sent an arrogant message to the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich with the words: “If you can resist me, then I’m already here, fighting your land.” Having received news of the appearance of the Swedes, Alexander Yaroslavich decided to act quickly in order to prevent the invaders from seizing the initiative. He did not wait for reinforcements from his father, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, or wait for the Novgorod veche to announce mobilization; Alexander set out on a campaign only with his squad, reinforced by Novgorod volunteers. Before the performance, the prince turned to the soldiers and said that although there are few of them, they must win, because “God does not lie in might, but in truth.”
At dawn on July 15, 1240. The Russians, taking advantage of the fog, attacked the Swedish camp “in the rage of their courage.” According to legend, the warrior Pelgusius saw the holy martyrs Boris and Gleb sailing along the river in a boat to the aid of “their relative” Alexander. During the battle, Alexander fought with Birger and wounded him in the head with a spear. In a fierce battle, the Swedes were defeated and expelled from Russian borders. The death of many Swedes, according to the same legend, was attributed by the Russians to the help of the angelic army, since a significant number of corpses of foreigners were found where there was no battle. Three Swedish ships were sunk during the battle. Thanks to the surprise of the attack and military skill, the Russians lost only 20 people. The Swedish damage was much more significant. In the Battle of the Neva, more than 200 noble warriors fell, and others were “countless.”
The victory on the banks of the Neva brought Alexander Yaroslavich great fame and the honorary nickname Nevsky. She played a huge role in raising the morale of the Russians. After all, this was their first major success after Batu’s invasion. The Battle of the Neva began Russia's centuries-long struggle to maintain access to the Baltic Sea, so important for the future of the country. The high significance of this battle in the minds of the Russian people is also evidenced by the fact that many of the highest families of the Russian nobility traced their ancestors precisely from the heroes of the Battle of the Neva.
Battle on the Ice. Almost simultaneously with the Swedes, in the summer of 1240. The Livonian Germans also went on the offensive. They took Izborsk by storm, defeating the Pskov army sent to help the Izborsk people. Pursuing the fugitives, the German knights approached the walls of Pskov, where local boyars opened the gates to the invaders. This was the end of the Germans' first campaign. Meanwhile, at the end of 1240. due to strife with the Novgorod boyars, Alexander Nevsky left Novgorod, who returned to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, in hometown Pereyaslavl-Zalessky. Apparently, having learned about the departure famous commander, the Germans resumed their onslaught. In the winter of 1241 they took Tesovo, Luga, Koporye. Advance detachments of knights began to appear 35 km from Novgorod. The Pope had already handed over the coast of the Neva and Karelia to the Bishop of Ezel, who now looked forward to the knights taking possession of the territory given to him.
Then the Novgorodians again turned to Nevsky for help. The Orthodox Church took on the role of mediator. The Bishop of Novgorod himself went to ask Yaroslav Vsevolodovich to release his son. Yaroslav, realizing the scale of the danger, put aside personal grievances and blessed his son for feats of arms. In 1241 Alexander returned to Novgorod with his squad and led the Novgorod army. With his first blow, he recaptured Koporye and the eastern shore of the Gulf of Finland from the Germans. Early spring 1242 Alexander Nevsky, having received the squad of his brother Andrei Yaroslavich as reinforcement, took possession of Pskov. Then the Russians moved north towards Dorpat (Yuryev), where by that time the main forces of the Livonian knights were concentrated. Alexander with his regiments (15 thousand people) reached the eastern shore of Lake Peipus and stood up against the troops of the Livonian Order (12-14 thousand people), blocking their direct road to Novgorod.
At dawn on April 5, 1242. A famous battle took place between the Russian squad and the army of the Livonian Order, which went down in history under the name “Battle of the Ice”. The striking force in the Order's army were the German crusading knights. They used their traditional “wedge” formation - a deep column, which allowed the knightly cavalry clad in armor to ram and crush the enemy. However, the “great pig,” which terrified the Baltic tribes, turned out to be powerless before the military genius Nevsky.
Taking into account the traditional German tactics, Prince Alexander paid main attention to the location of his troops and flank maneuver. The prince concentrated his striking forces on the flanks, in the form of pincers.
In the center, where the most combat-ready units were usually located, Alexander, on the contrary, placed a militia, whose task was to contain the heaviest blow. Behind the Russian positions there was a steep bank. In case of a breakthrough, he prevented the knights from maneuvering and bypassing the Russian army from the rear.
At the beginning of the battle, the knightly “wedge” attacked the center of the Russian troops and soon got stuck in battle formations. Then Alexander launched flank attacks on the “great pig,” mixing up its formation. According to the chronicle, “and the slaughter was cruel... and it seemed that a frozen lake was moving, and no ice was visible, for it was covered with blood.” 400 German crusaders alone fell. Even more infantrymen who were with them, recruited from among the conquered peoples (Estonians, Livs), were killed. The knights were completely defeated and fled to the west. The Russian cavalry pursued them 7 miles to the opposite bank. The Battle of the Ice decided the outcome of the war, stopping the advance of the crusaders to the east. The Livonian Order was forced to make peace and abandon the captured Novgorod-Pskov territories.
This battle became for the Russians an eternal symbol of a just triumph over aggression from the West. The chronicle preserved the prayer of Alexander Nevsky before the battle: “Great and mighty God, who founded the earth and set boundaries for the peoples and commanded them to live without approaching someone else’s part! Judge me, O Lord, with those who offend me, overcome those who fight with me.” It is interesting that seven centuries later, the text of this prayer of the prince, addressing the Eastern Slavs, was pronounced by Metropolitan Tikhon on June 22, 1941. on the day of the invasion Nazi troops to Russian land.
The Battle of the Ice opened a new page in Russian military art. This was one of the first examples of heavy knightly cavalry suffering a severe defeat in field battle from an army consisting primarily of infantry. What was also new was that for the first time the Eastern Slavs pursued a defeated enemy, and did not remain to celebrate victory on the battlefield, as had happened before. This enhanced the effect of the defeat of the crusaders.
The historical name of the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice lies not in the scale of these battles, but in the deterrence of extremely dangerous aggression. While waging war, the knights aimed not only at administration, but also at the spiritual subjugation of the conquered peoples. The Crusaders sought to convert them to the Catholic faith and impose on them the idea of the superiority of the German nation. The consequences of their expansion are evidenced by the example of the conquered Baltic peoples, who turned into “second-class” people on their own land. The invaders became the owners (the upper class). The Baltic tribe of Prussians, for example, was almost completely destroyed by the aggressors.
In 1253 Livonian knights attacked the lands of Pskov. This time the Pskovites repelled the onslaught, and then crossed the Narova River and ravaged the Order’s possessions. In 1256 The Swedes attempted to attack Novgorod. They fortified themselves on the eastern bank of the Narova River and founded a fortress there. But when the Russian squads approached, they fled without accepting the fight. In response, Alexander Nevsky's troops made a winter campaign across the ice of the Gulf of Finland and attacked Swedish possessions in Finland. So, in the second half of the 13th century. Russians move from defending their lands to attacking and begin to beat the aggressor on his territory. The central battle of this period was the Battle of Rakovor. Battle of Rakovor. In the winter of 1268 Novgorod and Pskov regiments led by Dovmont of Pskov, reinforced by the squad of Alexander Nevsky’s son, Dmitry Alexandrovich (up to 30 thousand people in total, according to German data), made a major campaign in Livonia against the Danish knights who had invaded the Baltic states. In the area of Rakovor (now the Estonian city of Rakvere), the Russians encountered a combined Danish-German army under the command of Master Otto von Rodenstein, who gathered the flower of Livonian knighthood under his banner.
The Battle of Rakovor took place on February 18, 1268. She was distinguished by furious pressure from both sides. “Neither our fathers nor our grandfathers,” the chronicler wrote, “have ever seen such a cruel slaughter.” The central blow of the “great pig” was taken by the Novgorodians, led by the mayor Mikhail. The Iron German Regiment, clad in armor, fought against them. According to the chronicle, people fell in whole rows. In a terrible battle, Mikhail himself and many of his soldiers died. However, the Russians managed to turn the tide of the battle in their favor and put the knights to flight. The outcome of the battle was decided by a flank attack by the regiments of Prince Dmitry Alexandrovich, who put the crusaders to flight and drove them 7 miles all the way to Rakovor.
But when Dmitry and his soldiers returned to the battlefield in the evening, they found another German regiment attacking the Novgorod convoys. Dmitry wanted to immediately attack the knights, but the governors dissuaded the prince from starting a night battle fraught with confusion. Dmitry agreed and decided to wait until morning. But under the cover of darkness the remnants German troops retreated. The Novgorodians stood at Rakovor for three days. At this time, Dovmont Pskovsky with his regiments made a raid on Livonia, capturing big number prisoners.
According to the Livonian chronicles, the Crusaders lost 1,350 people in the Battle of Rakovor, the Russians - 5,000 people. (if there are no special clarifications, then losses in battles, as a rule, mean killed, wounded and prisoners). Russian chronicles do not name losses, but from their reports that the Russian cavalry could not break through the corpses, one can conclude that there were significant losses among the crusaders. This is evidenced by the fact that a year later the Danes and Livonian Germans made peace with the Novgorodians, which lasted 30 years. The defeat of the crusaders also meant the triumph of Orthodoxy over the military expansion of Catholicism. It is not for nothing that Alexander Nevsky and Dovmont of Pskov were canonized by the Russian Church.
Reflecting aggression on the northwestern borders of Rus' continued in the future. Not many places in Russia can compare in the tenacity and duration of military operations with the section from Izborsk to Ladoga. From the XIII to the XVIII centuries. On these lines, then fading, then flaring up again, there was a severe confrontation between the Eastern Slavs and the Germans and Swedes. The Principality of Pskov, whose lands directly bordered the possessions of the Livonian Order, bore the brunt of the fight against the German crusaders. From 1228 to 1462, according to the calculations of the historian S. M. Solovyov, the Pskov land was invaded 24 times, i.e. on average once every 10 years. The Novgorodians were mainly in conflict with Sweden. During the specified period, they repelled external onslaught 29 times. In 1322 their squads under the leadership of the Moscow prince Yuri Daniilovich made a campaign against the Swedes, after which in 1323. The Orekhovsky peace was concluded. For the first time he established an official border between Novgorod and Sweden along Karelian Isthmus. But it took another century to finally settle territorial disputes.
3. Test
Test answers:
1. 1223 >III. Battle of Kalka > V. Mongol-Tatars
2. 1237 > II. Beginning of Batu's invasion > V. Mongol-Tatars
3. 1240 > I. Battle of the Neva > B. Swedes
4. 1242 > IV. Battle on the Ice> A. Germans
fight Rus' aggression Horde yoke West
Bibliography
1. Military encyclopedia: In the 8th volume / Ch. ed. commission P.S. Grachev (prev.). - M., 1995. - T.Z. - pp. 461-463.
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The state structure of Rus' in the pre-Mongol period. Vladimir-Suzdal principality, Galicia-Volyn and Novgorod lands. Conquest of Rus' by the Mongol-Tatars. Battle of the Kalka River. The defeat of southern Rus'. Political situation in Rus' during the yoke.
abstract, added 06/03/2014
Mongol-Tatar invasion in Rus'. The beginning of the invasion, the reasons for the success of the Mongol-Tatars. Horde yoke in Rus'. Standing on the Ugra River in 1480. Overthrow of the Horde yoke. The role of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in the fate of Russia. Opinions of historians and researchers.
abstract, added 05/22/2013
Principles, essence and reasons for the state fragmentation of Ancient Rus'. Mongol-Tatar invasion, its consequences; Rus' and the Golden Horde: features of relations. The fight against Swedish-German colonization and the spiritual expansion of Rome; Alexander Nevskiy.
test, added 11/17/2011
Russian princes in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars, their importance as leaders: Yarosla Vladimirsky, Alexander Nevsky, Daniil Galitsky, Yuri Vsevolodovich. Russian princes in battles, features of their participation and assessment of the results: the battle on the Kalka River and City.
Key dates and events.
1223 – the first clash of Russian troops with Mongol-Tatar troops on the Kalka River (the Russians were defeated)
1236– defeat of the Volga Bulgaria by the Mongol-Tatars
1237 – 1238 – Batu’s first campaign against Rus'
1239 – 1242 – Batu’s II campaign against Rus'
1240 – Battle of the Neva
1242 – Battle of the Ice on Lake Peipsi
1252 – 1263– years of the reign of Alexander Nevsky
Mongol-Tatar invasion and establishment of the yoke over Russia.
By the time the invasion of Russian territory began, the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan managed to conquer the tribes of the Buryats, Yakuts, the Jin Empire (China), Khorezm, Transcaucasia and began to threaten the territories controlled by the Polovtsian tribes. At this time, the Russian princes were on friendly terms with the Polovtsy, so the Polovtsy, together with the Russian princes, 1223 They put up a united army against the Mongols and, despite their numerical superiority, were defeated on the river. Kalke.
After the death of Genghis Khan in 1227 His empire, which had grown by this time, was divided among his sons. One of the conqueror's grandsons, Batu, led a trip to Europe (1235 G.). Along the way, Volga Bulgaria and a number of neighboring tribes were conquered. IN 1237 Tatar troops appear at the borders of the river. Voronezh and begin a powerful attack on the southern lands of Rus'. Ryazan, Moscow, Rostov, Suzdal, and Vladimir were destroyed. On his first campaign against Rus', Batu was unable to reach Novgorod and his army turned back. The military invasion was resumed in 1239. The Mongols defeated the scattered forces of the Russian princes and took Murom, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, and Kyiv. Batu's army reached the Adriatic Sea and 1242 g. suddenly returned to the steppes, which was associated with the death of one of Genghis Khan’s sons, Ogedei. New elections for the Great Khan were coming up, and Batu considered participation in these elections more important than further advancement to the West. As a result, it was established over Russia yoke(dominance) of the Mongol-Tatars.
In the east of Rus', the Golden Horde was formed in 1243, a state formation led by Khan Batu. A system of relationships was established between the Horde and Russia, which was based on payment by the Russian princes tribute Tatars In addition, a system was determined for the approval of all Russian princes who were to receive in the Horde label, giving them the right to reign.
Consequences of the invasion:
- Lagging behind Europe after 240 years of yoke
- Population reduction, destruction of cities and villages
- Vassal dependence on the Horde - tribute, labels, systematic raids
- Reduction of cultivated area
- Confirmation of autocratic power.
The struggle of northwestern Rus' against the aggression of Swedish and German knights.
Sweden, Baltics
goals - capture of new lands, spread of Catholicism
July 1240 – Battle of Neva.
The Swedes ascended the Neva with the aim of enveloping the Novgorod land with “pincers”: from the west - the Germans, from the north-west - the Swedes - a lightning attack by Russian squads and the militia of Prince Alexander Yaroslavich - the Swedes were defeated. Reasons for the defeat of the Swedes: the heroism of the Novgorod warriors, the talent of Alexander Nevsky (surprise, blocked the Swedes’ retreat to the ships, divided the enemy into pieces with infantry and cavalry). Victory value: Novgorod concentrated all its forces against the German knights.
April 1242 – Battle on the Ice.
The tactics of the knights are to break through the Russian defenses with a “pig” wedge and break them piece by piece.
The tactics of Alexander Nevsky are encircling the enemy; the ice cannot withstand the heavily armed Germans. Reasons for the Russian victory: Alexander Nevsky's talent: choosing a place for a decisive battle, knowledge of enemy tactics (pig formation), skillful deployment of the Russian army, heroism of Russian soldiers. Victory value: Novgorod and Pskov lands retained their independence. Preventing further invasion of Russian lands. Prince Alexander Nevsky canonized.
Ticket number 3. Question 1. Culture of Rus' in the XIV – XVI centuries.
The Mongol-Tatar yoke dealt a unique blow to the development of Russian culture. There is a decline in various areas of culture.
Destroyed:
· monuments of Russian architecture;
· writing;
· stopped stone construction;
· Some types of crafts have disappeared.
From the second half of the 14th century, a gradual rise of Russian culture began. The leading theme in culture was the idea of the unity of the Russian land and the fight against foreign yoke.
For the epic epic characteristically refers to the era of independence. A new genre of oral is being formed folk art - historical song. The advent of paper made it accessible books.
Particular influence on the development of Russian literature provided Battle of Kulikovo. Works dedicated to the Battle of Kulikovo: “Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of Mamaev’s Massacre” - were very popular in Rus'.
At the beginning of the 15th century, the first all-Russian chronicle appeared - Trinity Chronicle.
The Moscow princes paid great attention to the compilation of chronicles, which contributed to the unification of the lands.
In the middle of the 15th century it was compiled The World History With brief information on the history of Rus' -Russian chronograph.
Result: Many works of art appear in Rus', talented masters from other countries move here to live and create.
In the XIV-XV centuries there was great development painting.
Masters of painting:
Feofan the Greek(worked in Novgorod, Moscow. Famous works: painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyinka, the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin and others).
Andrey Rublev(worked in Moscow. Famous works: painting of the Annunciation Cathedral, Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, frescoes and icons of the Trinity Cathedral, famous icon "Trinity").
Result: The style of painting of two talented masters had a strong influence on subsequent generations of Russian artists.
Stone architecture revived very slowly. The traditions of regional architectural schools continued to develop. White stone walls were erected in 13 67 Kremlin, later red is used; ny brick.
At the beginning of the 15th century, the Assumption Cathedral and the Cathedral of the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery in Zvenigorod, the Church of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Cathedral of the Andronnikov Monastery in Moscow were built.
At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin was created.
Russian culture at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th is developing under the sign of the state unification of the country and the strengthening of its independence.
The official ideology of the Russian state is being developed. At the beginning of the 16th century, the idea was put forward "Moscow-Third Rome". The essence of the theory:
· Rome - an ever-existing kingdom - moves from one country to another;
· Rome perished - the second Rome appeared - Byzantium;
· Byzantium died - it was replaced Moscow(Third Rome);
· There will be no fourth Rome.
IN "Tales of the Princes of Vladimir" reflected political theory of the origin of the Russian state: Moscow princes- direct descendants of the Roman Emperor Augustus.
The Church ideologically justifies the need to strengthen the centralized state. Church persecutes furiously heresies.
One of the most widespread genres of oral folk art has become historical song:
- the struggle of Ivan the Terrible with the boyars was glorified;
Ermak's campaign in Siberia;
-capture of Kazan;
The literature of that time is characterized journalism in the form of messages and letters.
The biggest event in the history of Russian culture was the emergence of printing.
In 1553, the publication of books began in Moscow.
1564 Ivan Fedorov And Peter Mstislavets(published the first printed book "Apostle")
In the second half of the 16th century, about 20 large printed books were published in Russia.
A major event in architectural construction was the construction of a new Kremlin. Italian architect Fioravanti(Assumption Cathedral);
During this period, kremlins were built in other cities: Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna.
Church in the village Kolomenskoye was built with elements of wooden architecture;
In 1560, Russian architects Barma And Faster completed the construction of St. Basil's Cathedral (blinded). The tent style appeared in church construction.
Painting represented by church paintings and iconography. The most outstanding master was Dionysius.
The most famous works:
· icon of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin;
· painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Ferapontov Monastery;
The period of the late XV-XVI centuries is characterized by the accumulation 1 theoretical and practical knowledge in the field of mathematics and mechanics.
The traveler Afanasy Nikitin collected valuable geographical information - "Walking beyond the three seas."
Maps of the territory of the Russian state appear. Foundry begins to develop:
· the state Cannon Yard began to operate;
· master Andrey Chokhov cast Tsar Cannon(weight 40 tons).
Bottom line. The creation of a centralized state, a fierce fight against heresies and free thought led to strict state control over all forms of art
Ticket 4. Question 1. The unification of Russian lands around Moscow and the formation of the Russian centralized state in the 14th – 15th centuries.
In the middle of the 13th century, under the son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniil Alexandrovich, Moscow became an appanage principality and began to pursue an independent policy. At the same time, the Tver Principality strengthened significantly, also laying claim to leadership among the Russian lands. Soon the struggle for the Vladimir table began between Yuri Danilovich Moskovsky And Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy. The Horde intervened in the dispute. In 1327 Tver rebelled against the Tatars. Participated in the defeat of the uprising Ivan Kalita, Prince of Moscow, who received for this the reign of Vladimir and the right to collect tribute from Russian lands. He acquired a number of lands (Beloozero, Uglich, Galich Mersky). The metropolitan moved to Moscow from Vladimir, which strengthened her influence. At Dmitry Ivanovich(1359-1389) Moscow began to crush Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan. In 1368-1372. she survived the war with the Lithuanian prince Olgerdom, who helped Tver. In the 1370s. ruler of the Horde Temnik Mamai decided to weaken Moscow; in 1377 the Tatars defeated the Moscow-Nizhny Novgorod detachments on the river. Drunk and burned Nizhny Novgorod. But in 1378 the Moscow-Ryazan army defeated the Horde on the river. Vozhe, and in 1380 the united armies of Dmitry Donskoy and other Russian princes defeated the troops of Mamai at Kulikovo field. However, Khan Tokhtamysh ravaged Moscow in 1382 and returned it to the rule of the Horde.
After the defeat of the Horde by Timur in 1395 Vasily I(1389-1425) did not pay her tribute for several years. In 1408, the ruler of the Horde, Edigei, again besieged Moscow, did not take it, but terribly devastated the surrounding cities. The power of the Tatars was strengthened again. At the same time, Western Russian lands were captured by Lithuania - in 1403, the Lithuanian prince Vitovt captured Smolensk. Vasily I captured the Nizhny Novgorod principality back in 1392, purchasing the rights to it from the Horde.
The centralized Russian state with its center in Moscow took shape during the reign of the son of Vasily II Ivan III(1462-1505). Under him, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Novgorod, Tver, and Vyatka were annexed to Moscow. Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Great Horde (the largest part of the collapsed Golden Horde). Khan Akhmat tried to weaken the power of Moscow and marched against it. But after "...standing on the Ugra" V 1480t., when the Tatars did not dare to attack the Russian regiments, Akhmat retreated to the steppe and died. The Horde Empire fell.
In 1472, Ivan III married for the second time the niece of the Emperor of Byzantium, Sophia (Zoe) Paleologus. Over time, the Byzantine double-headed eagle became the coat of arms of Rus'. Moscow acted as if in the role of Byzantium's successor. The foundations of a centralized state apparatus are being formed. Its central bodies were Boyar Duma and treasury (office). Locally - in counties and volosts - governors and volosts ruled. Under Ivan III, there was a massive distribution of land to service people (nobles, boyar children) - the backbone of the army. Ivan III was thinking about confiscating church lands for these purposes (secularization), but did not dare to do this due to pressure from the clergy, expecting that they would donate their possessions to him voluntarily.
In 1497 it was published Code of Law - the first all-Russian code of laws. For the first time, he introduced a uniform period for the entire country for the transfer of peasants from masters to St. George's day autumn (week before and after) subject to payment of debts and related duties (“elderly”).
At Vasily III(1505-1533) Moscow annexed the last independent centers in Rus' - Pskov and Ryazan, which completed the unification of the country. The despotism of the grand ducal power intensified even more. At the same time, there was a clearer demarcation of functions between the Grand Duke and the Boyar Duma. The economic recovery that began under Ivan III continued.
The unification of Rus' was largely carried out by force, because the economic prerequisites for it were not fully mature. Both the nobility and the common people had practically no rights in relation to the Grand Duke (they called themselves his slaves), whose power was limited only by age-old customs.
Ticket 5. Question 1. Transformations of Peter I: content, results.
The need to achieve access to the Black and Baltic Seas for normal economic development (starting point). → For this we needed strong army and the navy - this determines the military reforms. → For successful combat operations, in addition to the army and navy, weapons and uniforms were necessary - this determined economic reforms. → To wage war, additional sources of income were required - this determined the monetary and tax reforms. → To better collect taxes, it was necessary centralized system management and control system - this determines administrative reforms. → In order for management to become more efficient, it was necessary to increase the level of education of officials - this determines reforms in the field of culture and education.
The goals of the reforms of Peter I (1682-1725) were to maximize the power of the tsar, increase the military power of the country, territorial expansion of the state and access to the sea. The most prominent associates of Peter I were A. D. Mentikov, G. I. Golovkin, F. M. Apraksin, P. I. Yaguzhinsky, P. P. Shafirov, F. Yu. Romodanovsky, Ya. Bruce.
Military reform. Recruitment was introduced, new regulations were introduced, equipment was equipped in a Western manner, and a fleet was built. However, it is hardly true to talk about the creation of a regular army; it already existed since mid-17th century c., only its personnel composition changed as a result of the dissolution of the Streltsy regiments. The replacement of noble cavalry with dragoon cavalry led to a decrease in the combat effectiveness of cavalry.
Public administration reform. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the highest government agency- the Senate (1711), called upon to replace the tsar if necessary, orders - by collegiums. The “Table of Ranks” was introduced, which provided for a system of ranks and the procedure for assigning them not by nobility, but in accordance with service indicators. Decree on succession to the throne allowed the king to appoint anyone as heir. The capital was moved to St. Petersburg in 1712. In 1721 Peter accepted the imperial title. Church reform. In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, the church began to be governed by the Holy Synod and was deprived of part of its wealth. The priests were transferred to government salaries, their number was reduced, and some of them became landowner serfs.
Changes in the economy. In 1724 it was introduced capitation tax, levied on all men of the tax-paying classes, regardless of age, a mass of indirect taxes appeared (on coffins, beards, baths, etc.), ship taxes, etc. In general, taxes increased by about Zraza. Up to 180 manufactories were created, which marked the beginning of a large domestic industry. State monopolies were introduced on various goods, which, however, began to be abolished by the end of Peter’s reign. Canals and roads are being built, but many projects have not been implemented due to lack of funds.
Social reforms. Decree on unified inheritance(1714) equated estates to estates and prohibited their splitting during inheritance, so that those lordly sons who would not receive an estate would go into the sovereign's service. Passports were introduced for peasants, serfs and slaves were actually equated, which marked the beginning of serfdom in its “classical”, most brutal form.
Reforms in the field of culture. Navigation, Engineering, Medical and other schools, the first public theater, the first publicly accessible newspaper “Vedomosti”, a museum (Kunstkamera), and the Academy of Sciences were created. Nobles are sent to study abroad. However, the educational level of the nobility increased noticeably only in the second half. XVIII century Western dress for nobles, beard shaving, smoking, and assemblies are introduced.
Results. Finally formed absolutism. Russia's military power grew: it began to play a prominent role in European politics. At the same time, the antagonism between the upper and lower classes seriously worsened, and serfdom began to take on slave forms. The tax pressure increased enormously, and the positive effect did not correspond to the invested funds. The bureaucratic apparatus has expanded enormously. The upper class merged into one noble class, which, however, continued to maintain its heterogeneity.
The 13th century in the history of Rus' is a time of armed resistance to the onslaught from the east (Mongol-Tatars) and northwest (Germans, Swedes, Danes).
The Mongol-Tatars came to Rus' from the depths of Central Asia. The empire formed in 1206, led by Khan Temujin, who accepted the title of Khan of all Mongols (Genghis Khan), by the 30s. XIII century subjugated Northern China, Korea, Central Asia, and Transcaucasia to its power. In 1223, in the Battle of Kalka, the combined army of Russians and Polovtsians was defeated by a 30,000-strong detachment of Mongols. Genghis Khan refused to advance into the southern Russian steppes. Rus' received almost a fifteen-year respite, but could not take advantage of it: all attempts to unite and end civil strife were in vain.
In 1236, Genghis Khan's grandson Batu began a campaign against Rus'. Having conquered Volga Bulgaria, in January 1237 he invaded the Ryazan principality, ruined it and moved on to Vladimir. The city, despite fierce resistance, fell, and on March 4, 1238, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yuri Vsevolodovich was killed in the battle on the Sit River. Having taken Torzhok, the Mongols could go to Novgorod, but the spring thaw and heavy losses forced them to return to the Polovtsian steppes. This movement to the southeast is sometimes called the “Tatar round-up”: along the way, Batu robbed and burned Russian cities, which courageously fought against the invaders. The resistance of the residents of Kozelsk, nicknamed the “evil city” by their enemies, was especially fierce. In 1238-1239 The Mongol-Tatars conquered the Murom, Pereyaslav, and Chernigov principalities.
North-Eastern Rus' was devastated. Batu turned south. The heroic resistance of the inhabitants of Kyiv was broken in December 1240. In 1241, the Principality of Galicia-Volyn fell. The Mongol hordes invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, reached Northern Italy and Germany, but, weakened by the desperate resistance of Russian troops, deprived of reinforcements, retreated and returned to the steppes of the Lower Volga region. Here in 1243 the state of the Golden Horde was created (the capital of Sarai-Batu), whose rule the devastated Russian lands were forced to recognize. A system was established that went down in history as the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The essence of this system, humiliating in spiritual terms and predatory in economic terms, was that: the Russian principalities were not included in the Horde, but retained their own reigns; the princes, especially the Grand Duke of Vladimir, received a label to reign in the Horde, which confirmed their presence on the throne; they had to pay a large tribute ("exit") to the Mongol rulers. Population censuses were conducted and tribute collection standards were established. The Mongol garrisons left Russian cities, but before the beginning of the 14th century. The collection of tribute was carried out by authorized Mongol officials - the Baskaks. In case of disobedience, punitive detachments - rati - were sent to Rus'.
Two important questions arise: why did the Russian principalities, having shown heroism and courage, fail to repel the conquerors? What consequences did the yoke have for Rus'? The answer to the first question is obvious: of course, the military superiority of the Mongol-Tatars was important (strict discipline, excellent cavalry, well-established intelligence, etc.), but the decisive role was played by the disunity of the Russian princes, their feuds, and inability to unite even in the face of a mortal threat.
The second question is controversial. Some historians point to the positive consequences of the yoke in the sense of creating the prerequisites for the creation of a unified Russian state. Others emphasize that the yoke did not have a significant impact on the internal development of Rus'. Most scientists agree on the following: the raids caused severe material damage, were accompanied by the death of the population, the devastation of villages, and the destruction of cities; the tribute that went to the Horde depleted the country and made it difficult to restore and develop the economy; Southern Rus' actually became isolated from the North-Western and North-Eastern, their historical destinies diverged for a long time; Rus''s ties with European states were interrupted; tendencies towards arbitrariness, despotism, and autocracy of princes prevailed.
Having been defeated by the Mongol-Tatars, Rus' was able to successfully resist aggression from the north-west. By the 30s. XIII century The Baltic states, inhabited by tribes of Livs, Yatvingians, Estonians and others, found themselves in the power of the German crusading knights. The actions of the Crusaders were part of the policy of the Holy Roman Empire and the Papacy to subjugate pagan peoples to the Catholic Church. That is why the main instruments of aggression were the spiritual knightly orders: the Order of the Swordsmen (founded in 1202) and the Teutonic Order (founded at the end of the 12th century in Palestine). In 1237, these orders united into the Livonian Order. A powerful and aggressive military-political entity established itself on the borders with Novgorod land, ready to take advantage of the weakening of Rus' to include its northwestern lands in the zone of imperial influence.
In July 1240, the nineteen-year-old Novgorod prince Alexander, in a fleeting battle, defeated Birger's Swedish detachment at the mouth of the Neva. For his victory in the Battle of Neva, Alexander received the honorary nickname Nevsky. That same summer, the Livonian knights became more active: Izborsk and Pskov were captured, and the border fortress of Koporye was erected. Prince Alexander Nevsky managed to return Pskov in 1241, but the decisive battle took place on April 5, 1242 on the melted ice of Lake Peipsi (hence the name - Battle of the Ice). Knowing about the favorite tactics of the knights - formation in the shape of a tapering wedge ("pig"), the commander used flanking and defeated the enemy. Dozens of knights died after falling through the ice, which could not withstand the weight of heavily armed infantry. The relative safety of the northwestern borders of Rus' and the Novgorod land was ensured.
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In 1243, the Great Khan made Yaroslav Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky the eldest among the Russian princes. After his death in 1246, a struggle for the Vladimir table began, in which the Horde intervened and devastated the Suzdal land. Alexander Nevsky settled in Vladimir. IN political purposes he helped the Horde impose tribute on Rus'. In 1262, uprisings against the Tatars broke out in Suzdal, but Alexander convinced the khan not to destroy the rebellious cities. In 1263 he died. Later, the Tatars attacked Rus' more than once, interfering in the feuds of the princes. |
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At this time, Tver and Moscow rose in power, and under Daniil Alexandrovich became an independent principality. Soon the struggle for the Vladimir table began between Yuri Danilovich Moskovsky and Mikhail Yaroslavich Tversky. The Horde intervened in the dispute. In 1327 Tver rebelled against the Tatars. Ivan Kalita, the prince of Moscow, took part in the defeat of the uprising, and for this he received the reign of Vladimir and the right to collect tribute from Russian lands. He acquired a number of lands (Beloozero, Uglich, Galich Mersky). The metropolitan moved to Moscow from Vladimir, which strengthened her influence. Under Dmitry Ivanovich (1359-1389), Moscow began to crush Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, and Ryazan. In the 1370s. the ruler of the Horde, Mamai, decided to weaken Moscow, but in 1378 the Tatars were defeated on the river. Vozhe, and in 1380 Dmitry Donskoy and other princes defeated Mamai on the Kulikovo field. However, Khan Tokhtamysh ravaged Moscow in 1382 and returned it to the rule of the Horde. After the defeat of the Horde by Timur in 1395, Vasily I (1389-1425) did not pay tribute to it for several years. In 1408, the ruler of the Horde, Edigei, again besieged Moscow, did not take it, but terribly devastated the surrounding cities. The power of the Tatars strengthened. |
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In 1425-1462. In the Principality of Moscow there was a feudal war - the struggle of Vasily II against Uncle Yuri and his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. During it, Vasily Kosoy was blinded in 1436, Vasily II (“Dark”) in 1446, and Shemyaka was poisoned in 1452, Vasily II won. |
1) At the end of the 30s of the 13th century, having conquered China, the Central Asian and Transcaucasian states, the Mongol conquerors approached the borders of the Russian lands.
The Polovtsian steppe, Crimea, Caucasus, and Volga Bulgaria were captured with lightning speed.
The Mongol army was led by Batu Khan. For the Russian princes this attack was sudden. Having crossed the Volga River, Batu approached the Ryazan principality and demanded tribute. The princes refused. And then the Tatar army moved forward, destroying everything in its path: cities, monasteries, churches, villages, people were killed or taken prisoner. They were plundered and burned: Vladimir, Suzdal, Novgorod, etc. In 1240, the Tatars approached Kyiv and captured it. Russian cities defended themselves very courageously; not a single city surrendered voluntarily, for which the population of these cities was mercilessly exterminated. Rus' was devastated to the last degree. The consequences of Batu's invasion were catastrophic - thousands of soldiers and ordinary people died. thousands of burned villages, dozens of cities, many thousands of people taken captive. In addition, the destruction of the structure of agriculture and trade. The Mongols established the Igo over Russia, obliging them to pay tribute and obey the Horde. The reason for all this was that the princes, mired in the struggle for power, did not want to act as a united front against a common enemy.
Formation of the Mongol Empire. Battle of Kalka 4
The invasions of Batu Khan on Russian lands and its consequences 7
Invasion of the Crusaders. Commander and Prince Alexander Nevsky. Neva Battle and " Battle on the Ice" 10
The problem of the dominance of the Golden Horde over Russia in modern historical literature. 13
REFERENCES 16
TESTS
1. When did the Mongols invade northeastern Rus'? (answer b)
In 1237, having invaded Russian lands, they besieged Ryazan. The princes of Vladimir and Chernigov did not come to the rescue. The Mongols besieged Ryazan and sent envoys who demanded submission and one tenth of “everything.” The courageous answer of the Ryazan residents followed: “If we are all gone, then everything will be yours.” On the sixth day of the siege, the city was taken, the princely family and surviving residents were killed. In its old place, Ryazan was no longer revived (modern Ryazan is a new city, located 60 km from old Ryazan; it used to be called Pereslavl Ryazansky). The city was taken and completely destroyed.
2. Which city in North-Eastern Rus' defended itself from Batu’s troops for seven weeks? (answer b)
Having reached the stone Ignach-cross - an ancient sign-sign on the Valdai watershed (one hundred kilometers from Novgorod), the Mongols retreated south, to the steppes, to recover losses and give rest to tired troops. The withdrawal was in the nature of a “round-up”. Divided into separate detachments, the invaders “combed” Russian cities. Smolensk managed to fight back, other centers were defeated. During the “raid”, Kozelsk offered the greatest resistance to the Mongols, holding out for seven weeks. The Mongols called Kozelsk an “evil city.”
3. Which land escaped Batu’s ruin? (answer b)
The Mongols did not reach Novgorod by only 100 km. swampy terrain and strong resistance from cities prevented the effort.
4. Why did the Tatar-Mongols defeat Rus' so easily and quickly? (answer d)
The appanage orders that reigned in Rus' at that time allowed the Tatar-Mongols to defeat Rus' so quickly. In Rus' they knew about the impending menacing danger, but princely strife prevented them from uniting forces to repel a strong and treacherous enemy. There was no unified command. City fortifications were erected for defense against neighboring Russian principalities, and not against steppe nomads.
5. Who were called Baskaks? (answer b)
To collect tribute, the Tatars conducted a population census and appointed special officials - Baskaks - with armed guards. The “Great Baskak” had a residence in Vladimir.
6. What was the historical significance of the victories. Those won under the leadership of Alexander Nevsky? (answers a, c)
The significance of this victory is that the military power of the Livonian Order was weakened.
The victories of the Russian troops prevented attempts to impose Catholicism on Rus'. The Teutonic and Levon orders abandoned aggression towards Russian lands.
7. What was the influence of the Horde yoke on Rus'. (answer c)
In modern historical science, there are 2 points of view of the influence of the Mongol yoke on the development of Rus'. The traditional one views it as a disaster for Russian lands. Another considers Batu’s invasion as an ordinary raid of nomads.
The Horde yoke had a noticeable, predominantly negative, but not decisive influence on the formation of Russian statehood.
The consequences of the Mongol invasion changed the type of feudal development of Rus', preserved the stage of feudal fragmentation and, in connection with this, the transition to the centralization of the Russian state occurred with a significant delay compared to Western European countries.
Underdeveloped patrimonial land tenure, increased personal dependence of peasants on feudal lords and the subordination of cities to the feudal nobility.
The change from princely unions to a monarchy with a repressive mechanism of governance, a focus on violence against the people, the enormous personal property of the autocrat, the service of feudal lords and the complete subordination of the urban and rural population.
Formation of the Mongol Empire. Battle of Kalka
At the beginning of the 13th century, the Mongolian state was formed in Central Asia in the territory from Lake Baikal and the upper reaches of the Yenisei and Irtysh in the north to the southern regions of the Gobi Desert and the Great Wall of China. In the name of one of the tribes that roamed near Lake Buirnur in Mongolia, these peoples were also called Tatars. Subsequently, all the nomadic peoples with whom Rus' fought began to be called Mongol-Tatars.
The Mongols were mainly engaged in nomadic cattle breeding, and in the taiga regions, hunting. In the 12th century, the Mongols experienced a collapse of primitive communal relations. From among ordinary community herders, who were called karachu - black people, noyons (princes) - nobility - emerged; Having squads of nukers (warriors), she seized pastures for livestock and part of the young animals. The Noyons also had slaves. The rights of noyons were determined by “Yasa” - a collection of teachings and instructions.
In 1206, a congress of the Mongolian nobility took place on the Onon River - kurultai (Khural), at which one of the noyons was elected leader of the Mongolian tribes: Temujin, who received the name Genghis Khan - “great khan”, “sent by God”. Having defeated his opponents, he began to rule the country through his relatives and local nobility until 1227.
The Mongols had a well-organized army that maintained family ties. The army was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands. Ten thousand Mongol warriors were called “darkness” (“tumen”).
Tumens were not only military, but also administrative units.
The main striking force of the Mongols was the cavalry. The warriors were well armed and trained. The Mongol cavalry had high mobility. On their short, shaggy-maned, hardy horses, they could travel up to 80 km per day, and with convoys, battering rams and flamethrowers - up to 10 km.
Like other peoples, going through the stage of state formation, the Mongols were distinguished by their strength and solidity. Hence the interest in expanding pastures and organizing predatory campaigns against neighboring agricultural peoples, who were at a much higher level of development, although they were experiencing a period of fragmentation.
This greatly facilitated the implementation of the Mongol-Tatars’ plans of conquest. The Mongols began their campaigns by conquering the lands of their neighbors - the Buryats, Evenks, Yakuts, Uighurs, and Yenisei Kyrgyz (by 1211). They then invaded China and took Beijing in 1215. Three years later, Korea was conquered. Having defeated China (finally conquered in 1279), the Mongols significantly strengthened their military potential. Flamethrowers, battering rams, stone-throwers, and vehicles were adopted.
In the summer of 1219, an almost 200,000-strong Mongol army led by Genghis Khan began the conquest of Central Asia. The ruler of Khorezm (a country at the mouth of the Amu Darya), Shah Mohammed, did not accept a general battle, dispersing his forces among the cities. Having suppressed the stubborn resistance of the population, the invaders stormed Otrar, Khojent, Merv, Bukhara, Urgench and other cities. The ruler of Samarkand surrendered the city without a fight.
The rich, flourishing agricultural regions of Semirechye (Central Asia) turned into pastures. Irrigation systems built over centuries were destroyed. The Mongols introduced a regime of cruel exactions, artisans were taken into captivity. As a result of the Mongol conquest of Central Asia, nomadic tribes began to populate its territory. Sedentary agriculture was replaced by extensive nomadic cattle breeding, which slowed down the further development of Central Asia.
The main force of the Mongols returned from Central Asia to Mongolia with looted booty. An army of 30 thousand under the command of the best Mongol military commanders Jebe and Subedei set off on a long-distance reconnaissance campaign through Iran and Transcaucasia, to the West. Having defeated the united Armenian-Georgian troops and caused enormous damage to the economy of Transcaucasia, the invaders, however, were forced to leave the territory of Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, as they encountered strong resistance from the population. Past Derbent, where there was a passage along the shores of the Caspian Sea, the Mongol troops entered the steppes of the North Caucasus. Here they defeated the Alans (Ossetians) and Cumans, after which they ravaged the city of Sudak (Surozh) in the Crimea. The Polovtsians, led by Khan Kogan, the father-in-law of the Galician prince Mstislav the Udal, turned to the Russian princes for help.
On May 31, 1223, the Mongols defeated the allied forces of the Polovtsian and Russian princes in the Azov steppes on the Kalka River. This was the last major joint military action of the Russian princes on the eve of Batu's invasion. However, the powerful Russian prince Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir-Suzdal, son of Vsevolod the Big Nest, did not participate in the campaign.
Princely feuds also affected during the battle on Kalka. The Kiev prince Mstislav Romanovich, having strengthened himself with his army on the hill, did not take part in the battle. Regiments of Russian soldiers and Polovtsy, having crossed Kalka, struck the advanced detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who retreated. The Russian and Polovtsian regiments became carried away in pursuit. The main Mongol forces that approached took the pursuing Russian and Polovtsian warriors in a pincer movement and destroyed them.
The Mongols besieged the hill where the Kyiv prince fortified himself. On the third day of the siege, Mstislav Romanovich believed the enemy’s promise to release the Russians with honor in case of voluntary surrender and laid down his arms.
He and his warriors were brutally killed by the Mongols. The Mongols reached the Dnieper, but did not dare to enter the borders of Rus'. Rus' has never known a defeat equal to the Battle of the Kalka River. Only a tenth of the army returned from the Azov steppes to Rus'. In honor of their victory, the Mongols held a “feast on bones.” The captured princes were crushed under the boards on which the victors sat and feasted.
- Abstract >> Political Science
Due to a number of internal and external reasons: - geographical... concluded in the XIV century commercial and political... Russians lands from the Crusader aggression German and Swedish feudal lords. Principality of Kiev Already in middle...and organizers struggle with the Polovtsians...
Socio-economic and political prerequisites and reasons for collecting Russians lands
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Abstract >> History
Some centuries. B IV century AD ...tribes that consolidated towards middle 1st millennium AD Eastern... the most powerful of Russians princes. 5. Struggle Russians lands and principalities... aggression militaristic states - Germany, Italy and Japan. External ...
