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Presentation on world history on the topic "India after the Second World War." A. India

Changing mood in India afterto Labor power

Labor government in England Having won a landslide victory in the parliamentary elections, it was determined to resolve all problems in India as quickly as possible. England's strategy was set out in the government's declaration of September 19, 1945.

The head of government, C. Attlee, sent three members of his cabinet to India with the goal of achieving an agreement between the Congress and the Muslim League before granting the country independence. But during the war years, relations between these organizations deteriorated noticeably, and the leader of the Muslim League, M. Ali Jinnah, believed that England was more favorable to the Congress. Therefore, the British attempts to achieve an agreement between the INC and the League ended in failure.

March 15, 1946 India was granted status dominion and in April elections were held for the provincial Legislative Assemblies. In May 1946, the Viceroy published a plan: it proposed the creation of a federation of three zones with very broad powers (North-West, East and Central). But the plan was again rejected by both the Muslim League and the INC.

In July 1946, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held (deputies were appointed from the Provincial Legislative Assemblies), and the Viceroy proposed D. Nehru to form a government. The Muslim League refused to join the new government, and 10 August 1946 G. M. Ali Jinnah called on Muslims to start an open struggle for transportationPakistan's announcement.

In Bengal and Sindh, where the Muslim League governments were in power, a general hartal was declared. But when League activists began to force Hindus to close shops, shops and workshops, clashes began, which escalated into a bloody massacre in Calcutta on August 16 - about 20 thousand people were killed. On the same day, unrest spread to Benares, Allahabad, Dhaka and Delhi. Massacres and arson occurred everywhere; in 4 days, according to official data, over 6 thousand people were killed. With great difficulty M.K. Gandhi, using his personal authority, managed to suppress the clashes in Calcutta, but nevertheless, the massacres were constantly renewed in one place or another.

September 2, 1946 Mr. D. Nehru finally formed government with the participation of Hindus, Parsis and Christians. On October 15, 1946, the Muslim League formally joined the government, but it continued to boycott its work. The massacre did not stop, streams of refugees rushed to different parts of the country. Gandhi unsuccessfully threatened a hunger strike in an effort to stop the unrest. These events struck fear into people; many abandoned their homes and sought salvation in areas where fellow believers lived.

Situation in India after the end of World War II

Immediately after the end of the war, in addition to sharp differences between religious communities, India faced a number of other problems.

First tied up with officers of the former Indian National Armymii (INA). S.Ch. himself Bose died in a plane crash shortly before the end of the war, but hundreds of officers were captured and trials were launched against them in November 1945. In India, many considered them patriots and treated them with sympathy. Mass protests took place in defense of INA officers, for example, in November 1945, a general strike took place in Calcutta, then similar actions were repeated several times.

Second the problem is related to use after the war of Indiantroops in Indonesia and French Indochina. Since the autumn of 1945, a protest movement developed in India against the use of Indian troops to suppress the national movement in other countries. The protesters demanded the return of Indian troops to their homeland and their speedy demobilization. The peak of the movement occurred in February 1946.

At this time, military pilots went on strike, demanding demobilization and protesting against racial discrimination against Indians; A strike of naval sailors began in Bombay, demanding the immediate withdrawal of troops from Indonesia. The sailors' performances in Bombay were supported by a general strike declared on February 22, 1946. Only Vallabhai Patel managed to persuade the strikers to return to work - the conflict was resolved.

Third problem - peasant movement, which began in the principalities at the very end of the war. The most widespread demonstrations were in the largest principality - Hyderabad (in Telingana), where the peasants opposed the confiscation of land from tenants. In 1946, this movement was supported in the colony, especially in the Central Provinces. Unrest also took place in another principality - Kashmir. There, protests were directed against the despotism of the prince; satyagraha even took the form of refusal to pay taxes. The leaders of the INC and personally M.K. The Gandhis repeatedly intervened in the affairs of Kashmir, demanding that the prince release the arrested activists of the National Conference, an organization that enjoyed great authority in Kashmir.

Fourth problem associated with what broke out in India after the end of the war food crisis, which developed into a real famine (according to some sources, it affected a third of the population).

Thus, India was torn apart by deep contradictions, many of which threatened to become unmanageable in the foreseeable future, which, of course, strengthened England's desire to leave this region as soon as possible.

Completion of independence negotiations

On December 9, 1946, the Constituent Assembly finally opened. Rajendra Prasad was elected its chairman. But the situation in the country was difficult: religious unrest continued in the winter of 1946/47.

Early in 1947, Viceroy Wavell concluded that it was impossible to form a single central authority in India. He recommended that the British government either maintain control over India for at least another 10 years, or grant independence gradually, province by province. The British government was clearly not happy with this option, and March 22, 1947 it appointed Lord Mountbatten's new Viceroy, a man who spent the entire war in India as a commander of troops. It was announced that Britain would withdraw from India no later than June 1948.

Mountbatten took up the matter very actively. He believed that even this date (June 1948) was too late, by which point the violence would become uncontrollable. The British government agreed with this conclusion. 3 July 1947 Mountbatten presented planpartition of India. By that time, it became obvious that it was unlikely that it would be possible to maintain unity, and even such ardent opponents of the partition as M.K. Gandhi agreed with this.

It was proposed to simultaneously grant dominion rights by dividing India into two states: India and Pakistan. Pakistan consisted of two parts - western and eastern. West Pakistan was to include Sindh, Balochistan, North West Frontier Province and Western Punjab (approx. 1 / 4 the entire province). The eastern part of Pakistan included East Bengal (about 2/3 of the territory) and the Sylhet district of Assam, where a referendum was held.

Pakistan did not even represent a single whole: its western part was separated from the eastern part by a strip of Indian territory of 1600 km. In itself, this was an absurd state formation in which the most different peoples with a common religion.

Another part of Mountbatten's plan was dedicated to Indian princegestures. There were about 600 of them, and formally they were not part of the English colony. According to Mountbatten's plan, all principalities should be included either in India or in Pakistan - this was up to the rulers themselves to decide. But the principalities could not declare themselves independent states.

While those at the top were only concerned with the transfer of power, there was no time left for carefully demarcating the border in Punjab and Bengal. This was entrusted to a special demarcation commission chaired by Cyril Radcliffe. The commission worked for two months, but it was impossible in principle to draw boundaries that suited everyone. Millions of people began to leave areas that were going to a neighboring state.

Many people died during this mass exodus. The roads were filled with hundreds of thousands of refugees, moving in opposite directions and occasionally trying to settle scores with each other. Sikhs attacked Muslims, Muslims attacked Hindus. Cruelty begets cruelty, and enmity covers vast territories. Still, over 45 million Muslims remained on Indian territory, accounting for 12% of the population; The Hindu minority also survived in Pakistan - about 30 million Hindus lived in East Bengal.

Many misunderstandings occurred during the division of finances, office work, administrative functions, and the armed forces. India contained 90% of its mineral resources and industrial potential, while Pakistan concentrated the production of food and agricultural raw materials on its territory. The population of India was 320 million people, Pakistan - 71 million people.

AND still On August 15, 1947, the independence of the twostates - India and Pakistan. D. Nehru became the Prime Minister of India, Ch. Rajagopalacharya became the Governor-General, the government of Pakistan was headed by Liikat Alikhan, and M. Ali Jinnah became the Governor-General.

The granting of independence to India and Pakistan had a huge impact on the neighboring British colonies. February 4, 1948 independence was declared Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Then they gained state sovereignty Nepal and Burma. The long stage of colonial dependence on England was ending.

Conclusions

/. The war that began in 1939 interrupted the process of the gradual withdrawal of the British from India. In the conflict that broke out with the colonial authorities, the INC tried to put pressure on England, taking advantage of unfavorable circumstances for it. The leaders of the national movement in India were convincedthat the main thing is to achieve the departure of the British, and all other problems can be resolvedwobble by themselves.

The Muslim League, having adopted the Lahore Resolution on Pakistan in 1940, did not join the boycott of the British authorities. Filling the vacuum after leaving resignation of governments, formed by the INC, she began to propagate the idea of ​​dividing the country, in which she was quite successful.

India contributed significant contribution to the victory of the anti-fascist coalition, becomingfor England the main supplier of food, raw materials and industrialgoods. During the war, the situation in the national economy changed for the better.nomics, the process of ousting English capital from it accelerated, the Indian financial system and the position of local entrepreneurs strengthened.

After 1945, the continuously deteriorating situation in India forced the British to speed up the process of granting the country independence. Massacre 1946-1947 finally convinced society that the country's gaining independenceis possible only if it is divided into two states: India and Pakistan.

Ticket number 16.India after World War II

During the Second World War, India officially sided with the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition, but its politicians behaved differently. The Indian National Congress presented claims to the English government: they promised to support England in the war only on the condition that the British government officially recognized India's right to self-determination, convened a constituent assembly and formed a responsible government (they demanded independent government). The British government did not agree and from 42 to 44 the Indian National Congress was banned. => during these years the Indian National Congress fought on two fronts both against Hitler and against the British government. By the end of World War II, England's position was softening. The main problem remained the relationship between the Congress and the Muslim League (the point of divergence between them was the sequence of granting independence. The Indian National Congress demanded first to grant independence, and then to carry out territorial demarcation between Muslims and Hindus, the Muslim League, on the contrary, was afraid to remain part of India without an English presence)

In 1944 Congress begins normal political activity. After the end of World War II, in June the Viceroy Archibald Wavell provides a plan to grant India independence (effectively a protectorate):

1. 1. Dominion status
2. 2. The right of Hindus to have their own constitution
3. 3. Granting Indians all seats in the executive council (government), except for the post of viceroy (head of the council) and commander-in-chief (The troops are under the authority of the archdiocese)
4. 4. Law of external relations
5. 5. Separate representation in the Caste Hindu Council

Nobody liked this plan. The Indian National Congress demanded representation for caste Hindus. The Muslim League demanded that only it should represent the Muslims, without recognizing the right of representation of the Muslims to the Indian National Congress. (Further, the new Labor government is trying in every possible way to speed up the granting of independence, but the Hindus cannot distribute the sequence of obtaining it)

In 1946, there is a division into various zones in which voting on the creation of various states should take place. East-west (present Pakistan and Bangladesh) - Muslim majority and north (Hindustan, Rajputana, Bidar, Bengal) center (Deccan) south. It is assumed that the first two zones (west and east) will be united into one state, and the rest will be a separate Hindu state. But several problems arise:

• · The problem of Punjab (it is half Muslim and half Hindu)
• · Problem of Jamma and Kashmir
• · The problem of Hyderabad (a significant part is assimilated by Muslims)

Attlee (Prime Minister of Great Britain, Viceroy of India) cannot resolve these issues. In February 1947, he issued the third declaration, which spoke of the departure of England no later than 1948.

In March 1947, Attlee was replaced by Mountbatten (the last Viceroy of India). He provides Mountbatten's plan (If within 47 Hindus and Muslims do not agree among themselves, then he will transfer power to the provinces) => they begin to move, 1947 - the formation of 2 dominions: Pakistan (existed until 1956) and India (existed until 1950).

On August 15, 1947, the Mountbatten Plan for Indian Independence came into force. The English king continues to remain the head of India for 3 years, and Jawaharlal Nehru becomes prime minister.

From 1947 to 1949, 555 (there were 601 in total) principalities joined India, they entered on different grounds. But in general, not the most favorable period for India (+ a period of clashes, hostilities between Muslims and Hindus, who wandered around problem areas and did not know where to settle). The princes of the problem territories were left with the right to decide on the issue of annexation independently Hyderabad problem: the ruler of Hyderabad had to decide whether he would join India or Pakistan, so Indian troops stood around the perimeter of Hyderabad and asked them to quickly decide => the Rajah of Hyderabad decided to join India. Jamma and Kashmir problem: The Rajah was Hindu, and the population was Muslim. Indian troops entered Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan considered this an act of aggression => a war began that continues to this day.

India is a multi-ethnic country - it was decided that for 15 years the official language, along with Hindi, would be English (it remains so to this day). In 1950, a constitution was adopted, according to which 3 groups of states with different legal status were created in India:

1. Former provinces of British India. Governance: State governor, state government and local bicameral parliament.
2. Former principalities. Governance: the prince became governor and had a unicameral assembly
3. The former commissary provinces—provinces that had government—reported directly to the central government. Governance: State Governor or Presidential Commissioner appointed by the government.

India became independent in 1950 . The leading political force is the Indian National Congress; there are various currents within it. The main current was Jawaharlal Nehru(left and center wing) - formally mixed economy (in fact, dominance of the public sector), planned economy, implementation of agrarian reform. In foreign policy there is formal neutrality, a real inclination towards political direction Soviet Union. Right Wing – represented by Deputy prime minister Patel + Influential Figure - Congress Chairman Tandon - Free Enterprise, Creation modern market, integration into the international capitalist system.

After independence was declared, various parties began to branch off from the Indian National Congress:

• Peasant Labor Party
• Congress Socialists => Socialist Party
• Jawaharlal Nehru dominates - Congress socialism and Gandhian socialism

In the first elections of 1951 The Indian National Congress was opposed by the Jan Sangh (people's alliance). The Jan Sangh is an ally of the communalist party (traditional Hindu organizations like the Hindu Mahasabha and Rashtriya swayamsevak sanghan) - defended the interests Hindus . The head is Mukherjee. The program is the construction of true nationalism (the slogan of the Indian National Congress was secularism - the separation of religion from the state) and the demand for a change in secularist policies, patronage for Hindus and ensuring their priority. The Indian National Congress wins the elections (they received 75 seats in parliament).

Nehru's course begins to be implemented:

1. Providing ourselves with everything we need, creating an import-substituting industry.
2. The program of the national congress provided for the creation of ethnolinguistic states. In 1956, a law on the reorganization of states was adopted, according to which homogeneous ethnolinguistic communities should exist in 19 states and union territories (which again raised the problem of a single language - it became clear that the introduction of Hindi as the state language was postponed)
3. In the first term of the Indian National Congress, sub-Congress socialism emerged - the limitation of acquisitive instincts and proprietary aspirations
4. They believed that it was necessary to fight against caste restrictions (abolition of untouchables)
5. Creating conditions for the development of backward peoples and tribes
6. Emphasis on statism and mixed economy

In the second elections of 1957 - again a victory for the Indian National Congress, but with less popular support (it especially decreased in the regional areas). These elections also demonstrated the strengthening of the Jan Sangh.

In 1959, a group left the Congress that was dissatisfied with Nehru’s course - Swatantra (a more right-wing organization), which adjoins the Jan Sangh, they are also going to build true Hindu socialism.

Created in 1957 republican party, which expresses the interests of low-caste and non-caste Indians.

Parties are created on the basis of various sects: Rajputs, Brahmins.

1962 – third elections . A significant loss of authority of the Indian National Congress is visible (6 million voters were lost). The right-wing Swatantra and Jan Sangh are strengthening. A factional struggle is unfolding in the Indian National Congress; if earlier Jawaharlal Nehru represented both the left and the centrists, now only the centrists. The left gets its new leader - Mallaviya, Patel and Desai remain on the right. => factions within the Indian National Congress are opposing the officially nominated congress candidates. In 1963, Morarji Desai and Patel formed a group within the Congress, which was called the Syndicate, and in 1969 they left the Indian National Congress.

Jawaharlal Nehru dies in 1964. Lal Bahadur Shastri becomes Prime Minister– cannot overcome differences within the Congress, disintegration continues.

In India actually 5 communist parties:

• · Communist Party
• · Marxist Communist Party
• · Centrist Party of Marxist Intellectuals
• · Marxist-Leninist Communist Party
• Naxalite movement

During this time there was a 1964-65 war with Pakistan. Reconciliation of the parties takes place in Tashkent. In 1967, Lal Bahadur Shastri realized that he could not cope with the management of the Indian National Congress and with India => gradually removed himself from the role. In 1967, as a result of internal political struggle, Indira Gandhi came to power in the Indian National Congress.

1967 – fourth elections , in which the Indian National Congress loses a significant number of seats in parliament (19 seats in the House of the People). In 1969 Morarji Desai came out and a split occurred:

• Indian National Congress with Indira
• Indian National Congress Syndicate (organization) with Desai

At this time, on the one hand, the state is developing in the country. sector and heavy industry is being created, the latest technologies are being created, agrarian reform is taking place (due to the redistribution of land between large landowners and the poor), and at the same time there is extreme poverty in the country, 70% of the country is in extreme poverty. All economic success takes place in a smaller part of the population.

Fifth elections 1971-72 passed against the backdrop of India’s strong foreign policy success, a split occurred in India’s traditional enemy, Pakistan (in 1971 Pakistan lost its eastern half and Bangladesh was formed). => The Indian National Congress received an absolute majority and the ability to change the constitution.

Against the backdrop of the successes of the Indian National Congress, the opposition forces are uniting: Swatantra, Jan Sangh, Indian National Congress Syndicate, United Socialist Party and Regional Congress are trying to resist the Indian Congress.

1974-75: the situation worsens, the Indian People's Party (agrarian) is formed, which is based on the expression of the interests of the rich sections of the village (dissatisfied with the agrarian reform)

In 1975, a trial was initiated against Indira Gandhi, she was accused of rigging elections and violating state laws. Ram is nominated for the post of Prime Minister. In 1975, a state of emergency was introduced in India; the Indian National Congress, with the help of emergency measures, tried to stabilize its social base. A youth movement led by Indira’s son, Sanjay Gandhi, enters the political arena; a supporter of tough methods of solving problems => puts forward a program:

1. Elimination of illiteracy (going to the people, educating the masses + simultaneously explaining to them how good Indira Gandhi’s policies are)
2. Fight against casteism (elimination of untouchability) - upliftment of lower castes
3. Abolition of dowry
4. The fight for clean streets (demolition of old houses and construction of new ones from which they made a profit)
5. The fight against fertility was reduced to the sterilization of the male population.

In January 1977, the state of emergency was lifted, and elections were scheduled for March. The apposition created a popular front (Jarata Front) led by Morarji Desi, whose main task was:

1. Restoration of democratic freedoms (Indira was accused of authoritarianism)
2. Carrying out agrarian reform not of a social nature, but carrying out a “green revolution” and introducing new technologies to increase productivity.
3. Securing employment
4. Restricting the public sector and providing more freedom to entrepreneurs (+ there were even privatization projects in the lans of the Popular Front)

Sixth Election 1977 - First defeat of the Indian National Congress. The Jarat front is in power, represented by a conglomerate of various parties. They tried to make a party out of the front => May 1977 - Jarata Party, but as soon as they united they began to struggle. Various parties begin to emerge from the Jarata Front =>in fact, it disintegrates. All this leads to destabilization and disruption of control. =>

In the seventh elections 1980 Indian National Congress wins again. (During this time, changes occurred within the Congress - there was a desire to deviate somewhat from the course of Gandhian socialism)

At this time, national apposition movements are intensifying in the country:

• · Sikhs – announce their desire to create their own state, Khalistan
• · Tamils ​​- trying to form an independent state of Tamil Eelam
• · Jammu and Kashmir - open and covert military operations are underway

Internal struggle leads to dire consequences. Indira Gandhi's bodyguard consisted of Sikhs => October 1984 - they killed Indira.

In the eighth elections 1984 Indian National Congress wins led by Rajiv Gandhi (he completely changes the political course):

1. Retreats from Gandhian socialism
2. Privatization begins, the state share decreases. sectors
3. India is leaning towards the USA, Germany and Japan - the internal and external course is changing sharply

At the same time, Rajiv Gandhi's government is under attack for corruption, which has severely undermined faith in the Indian National Congress. A group of members emerges from it again in 1988.

Ninth elections 1989 – second defeat of Congress. The Congress government resigns and the National Front (Rashtriya Morcha) comes to power led by Vishwanath Pratap Singh. => There is no stability, from 1989 to 1991 various political forces continue to fight (from among the right: a pariah is formed on the basis of the Jarata Front - Bharatiya Janata Party).

1991 tenth election (Rajiv Gandhi is assassinated between rounds of elections) => compassionate Hindus vote for the Indian National Congress. In India, the new prime minister is Narasimha Rao, in his program:

1. Denationalization
2. Changing the import-substituting economy to a licensed one

1990s – sharp growth and modernization of the economy. In the eleventh elections 1996 Indian National Congress loses(the problem of privatization, enrichment, transition to friendship with America is not the original policy of Congress, there are those who do it better).

In the twelfth elections 1996 winsBharatiya Janata Party. Comes to powerAtal Bihari Vajpayee (occupies the post of Prime Minister for a short time - May 16, 1996 - June 1, 1996 )

+ Appeared new organization– United Front ( led by Deve Gowda,which with On June 1, 1996, he served as Prime Minister of India from the United Front (a coalition of 13 center and left parties). The Deve Gowda government resigned on April 21, 1997 ) – technocrats, people representing mainly regional interests (focused on settling relations with China). In fact, they carried out the policy that they pursued Indian National Congress in 1991-95, but they did it better and with more certainty - they are following the path of capitalist development (private enterprises are being sold, privatization is underway). But they lack certainty (either Gandhian socialism or true nationalism) => The result of a parliamentary compromise between the Congress and the United Front, who did not want to hold early general parliamentary elections after the resignation of the government of H.D. Deve Gowda, the government of I.K. Gujrala (Janata Dal Party - Prime Minister April 21, 1997 - March 19, 1998).

Thirteenth elections 1998 – again the success of the Bharatiya Janata Party. PremierAtal Bihari Vajpayee, V During Vajpayee's premiership, India held its first nuclear tests at a test site in Rajasthan (Sharp economic growth, development zones are being identified - India is becoming one of the leading countries) All this cannot but worry that part of society that is committed to the ideas of Gandhism (the Gandhi family at that time was headed by the Italian Sonia Gandhi, Rajib’s wife.

Fourteenth elections 2004 – victory Indian National Congress and the problem arises whether to make an Italian prime minister or to act differently. As a result, a Hindu becomes prime minister - Manmohan Singh.

In June 1947, a final agreement was reached that allowed the British Parliament to pass the Indian Independence Act, which came into force on August 15, 1947. This document set out the principles of partition, according to which a number of areas were given the opportunity to decide whether to join the Indian Union or Pakistan and declared the right of everyone of these dominions to self-government with the right to secede from the Commonwealth. The suzerainty of the English monarchy over the Indian principalities, as well as the validity of the treaties concluded with them, also ceased. The population of East Bengal and West Punjab chose Pakistan, and the residents of West Bengal and East Punjab spoke in favor of joining the Indian Union. Declaration of Independence India after independence

Immediately after independence, a government was formed in India headed by Prime Minister J. Nehru. The country witnessed unprecedented clashes between Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. There was a massive migration of Muslims to Pakistan and Hindus to India. Added to the communal hostility and clashes were the economic and political hardships caused by partition. Iron and highways and irrigation canal systems were cut off by state borders, industrial enterprises were cut off from sources of raw materials, civil services, police and army, necessary to ensure normal governance of the country and the safety of citizens, were separated. On January 30, 1948, when the disturbances in public order began to decline, Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu fanatic. Consequences of Jawaharlal Nehru's partition

The rulers of 555 princely states had to decide whether to join India or Pakistan. The peaceful integration of the vast majority of small principalities did not cause complications. But the Muslims, who stood at the head of the richest and most populous principality of Hyderabad, where Hindus numerically predominated, declared their desire to rule an independent sovereign country. In September 1948, Indian troops were brought into Hyderabad, and under pressure from the central Indian government, the Nizam signed an agreement to join the Indian Union. Consequences of the partition of the Principality of Hyderabad

A serious situation also arose in the north, where the ruler of Jammu and Kashmir, a territory with a predominantly Muslim population, was a Hindu maharaja. Pakistan put economic pressure on the princely state to achieve its annexation. In October 1947, about 5,000 armed Muslims entered Kashmir. The Maharaja, who was in dire need of help, signed a document on the inclusion of the principality into India. India accused the Pakistani side of aggression and referred the issue of Kashmir for discussion to the UN Security Council. The UN decided to recognize the actual ceasefire line as of January 1, 1949 as a demarcation line. On November 17, 1956, the Constituent Assembly of Kashmir adopted the Constitution, according to which the state of Jammu and Kashmir was declared integral part India. Consequences of the partition of the Disputed Territory of Kashmir

Relations with Pakistan have become a major issue foreign policy India. The protracted dispute over Kashmir has prevented India from taking a leadership role in the Non-Aligned Movement. When Indian Prime Minister John Nehru refused to cooperate with the United States in the fight against Soviet expansion, the Americans entered into a military alliance with Pakistan. This forced the Indian leadership to expand contacts with China and the USSR. Indian-Soviet ties noticeably strengthened after the conclusion of a major trade agreement in 1953 and the exchange of visits by the leaders of the two states. The USSR welcomed India's policy of non-alignment, which coincided with its strategic line of limiting US influence in the Afro-Asian region. Consequences of the 1954 partition. Meeting of J. Nehru. On the left is I.M. Kharchenko.

On January 26, 1950, India was declared a republic. The constitution of 1950 reflected the cautious position of the leadership and consolidated the successes achieved during the country's independent development. The relatively simple procedure for amending the constitution based on decisions of the majority in parliament expanded the possibilities for further implementation of reforms. Under J. Nehru, who was also the head of the Planning Commission, three five-year plans were implemented. Industrial policy focused on creating a mixed economy and opened up prospects for cooperation with private capital, although only state ownership was allowed in leading industries. This rule affected enterprises in the defense industry, ferrous metallurgy, heavy engineering, mining, etc. Development and reforms Flag of India Emblem of India

The policy of stimulating industrial development was combined with a policy of cautious reforms in the agricultural sector. The Planning Commission strongly recommended that states legislatively guarantee the protection of the rights of land users, in particular, limit rental rates, set a “ceiling” on the area of ​​​​individual land holdings and reorganize the credit and marketing system on a cooperative basis, and, in the more distant future, possibly agricultural production. Since 1953, the implementation of a community development program began, which set, in particular, the task of organizing a network of institutions to disseminate advanced agricultural experience in the village, as well as the creation of cooperative associations and panchayats in the village. Development and reforms Peasants

The government delayed reaching a compromise on the issue of reorganizing the territorial and administrative division into linguistic basis, and when in 1956 14 states were formed on the basis of the dominant languages, discontent of other ethnic communities manifested itself. In 1960, serious unrest in the state of Bombay forced the central authorities to meet demands for its division into two new states - Gujarat and Maharashtra. The Sikhs succeeded when in 1965 Punjab was divided into the state of Punjab, in which Sikhs formed the majority, and the state of Haryana, with a predominantly Hindu population. The ethnic problem arose even more sharply in the northeastern border strip, where some local tribes demanded independence and raised armed uprisings for this purpose. Borders of the moderate course New administrative-territorial divisions

The compromise with the leading castes seriously limited the government's ability to bring about social change in the village. The laws on agrarian reform that were approved in the states contained significant gaps that made it possible, on the one hand, to force tenants off the land, and on the other, to circumvent the provision on the upper limit of the area of ​​​​land holdings. The slow rollout of reforms has led to a chronic shortage of agricultural products, rising food prices and a reduction in government subsidies. In the early 1960s, the financial crisis deepened. Economic stagnation, in turn, limited the INC's ability to maneuver. Boundaries of a moderate course Classic model caste hierarchy

Nehru's authority in October 1962 was significantly undermined after the invasion of Chinese troops into the territory of the North-East Frontier Agency and into the Ladakh mountains in Kashmir. In an effort to ensure connections between Xinjiang Uyghur and Tibet autonomous regions, China tried to force India to give up rights to the strategically important Aksai Chin plain in eastern Ladakh in Kashmir. The armed forces of the People's Republic of China carried out several attacks on the Indian army and occupied an area of ​​37.5 thousand square meters. km. By the time China announced the withdrawal of troops from all occupied areas except Aksai Chin, Nehru was forced to turn to the United States for military assistance. Borders of Ladakh temperate course on map of India

Sastri, who succeeded Nehru as Prime Minister, was nominated for this post by a group of party leaders called the "syndicate", which was supported by large landowners and entrepreneurs. In 1965, World Bank experts conditioned the provision of financial assistance on the implementation of a set of economic reforms. During his one and a half year tenure as Prime Minister, Shastri made decisions to reorient the main stream of government investment from heavy industry to agriculture; emphasis on intensive farming and land reclamation; stimulation through a price system and the allocation of subsidies to village farms capable of modernizing production; increasing the role of private and foreign investment in industry. The economy became especially dependent on foreign financial receipts when the country was burdened with additional military expenditures during the second war with Pakistan in 1965. Nehru's successors Lal Bahadur Shastri

The losses suffered by the INC in the parliamentary elections in 1967 did not deprive it of a narrow victory at the national level, but led to defeat in 8 states. In the states of Kerala and West Bengal, the INC was removed from power by a coalition led by the Communist Party of India. In both states, left-wing governments restricted the police, and there were protests by tenants and the agricultural proletariat against the landowners and factory workers - against the management of the enterprises. Revolutionary-minded communists supported armed peasant revolts in several states where the CPI operated. In the late 1960s, they organized protests by small peoples in Andhra Pradesh and members of the scheduled tribes and castes in West Bengal, which were suppressed by the army. Nehru's successors Parliament House in India

The country's next prime minister, Indira Gandhi, could no longer rely on the old party leaders and teamed up with a small youth group of socialists and former communists. The prime minister's decisive actions to nationalize the largest commercial banks associated her name with a new policy aimed at helping the poor. The prime minister's popularity reached its zenith in 1971 as a result of victory in the third Indo-Pakistani war. With the emergence of Bangladesh, India found itself in a dominant position in the South Asian region. Moreover, in May 1974 it conducted nuclear tests, demonstrating the country's increased military power. Indira Gandhi

In 1971, the government restored the right of parliament to amend the Constitution, abolished in 1967 by a ruling of the Supreme Court. The adopted 26th Amendment stated that any law must comply with the fundamental articles of the Constitution, based on the principles of social and economic justice. When the amendment was rejected in April 1973 Supreme Court, the government removed the three oldest judges who voted against it and appointed one of its members, who spoke in favor of the amendment, as chairman of the court. The leaders of all opposition forces, except the CPI, saw in this act a threat to the establishment of an authoritarian regime. The leader of the opposition was J. Narayan, the oldest follower of Mahatma Gandhi. Narayan launched an agitation campaign in Gujarat, which led in January 1974 to the resignation of ministers and the dissolution of the state legislature. An equally vigorous campaign was carried out in Bihar. Political crisis Mahatma Gandhi

Gandhi's charge of "corrupt practices" on June 2, 1975 gave her opponents the opportunity to organize a movement to remove the Prime Minister. In response, Gandhi declared a state of emergency in India, which resulted in mass arrests of political opponents and widespread censorship. In the parliamentary elections in March 1977 new batch The Janata, a bloc of opposition groups, won a landslide victory and repealed the emergency law. However, the Janata government soon became a victim of internal intrigue. Its head, M. Desai, resigned in June 1979, and in the parliamentary elections held in January 1980, Gandhi again came to power. Political crisis of Morarji Desai

Electoral participation in the 1980 elections fell to approximately 55% with an increase in conflicts during the election campaign. In West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura, the CPI won. The central government is faced with a resurgence of separatist movements in the northeast and a series of communal riots in Uttar Pradesh. In all cases, military force had to be used to restore order. In June 1984, following an outbreak of Sikh terrorism in Punjab, army troops stormed the Sikh sanctuary, the Golden Temple in Amritsar, leading to the death of Sikh leader Bhindranwale and hundreds of his followers who had taken refuge in the temple. Gandhi's decisive action was greeted with approval in other parts of India, but it turned the Sikhs against the prime minister. On October 31, 1984, I. Gandhi was assassinated by two of her Sikh guards. She was replaced as head of government and as leader of the INC by her son, Rajiv Gandhi, who scheduled parliamentary elections for the end of 1984 and won a landslide victory. Political crisis Rajiv Gandhi

In the 1989 elections, anti-INC(I) parties united around former finance minister V.P. Singh, who then headed a minority government. Singh's government relied on the Janata Dal party, created in 1988, and was supported by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and two communist parties. The coalition collapsed in November 1990 when the BJP left it. The next government of Chandra Sekhar resigned four months later because the INC(I) did not approve the state budget proposal. Political crisis BDP coat of arms

Rajiv Gandhi was killed by a bomb thrown by a Sri Lankan Tamil terrorist in May 1991. It was an act of revenge for the entry of Indian troops into northern Sri Lanka in 1987 to counter Tamil separatists. The new Prime Minister Narasimha Rao carried out decisive economic reforms in 1992 designed to modernize the country's industrial, scientific and technical base. Less successful was the Rao government's efforts to prevent communal violence following the destruction of a mosque in Uttar Pradesh by orthodox Hindus in December 1992. Narasimha Rao's political crisis

Elections in April-May 1996 led to the distribution of seats in parliament between three main factions: the INC (136 parliamentary seats), the BDP (160) and a left-wing coalition called the United Front (111 seats). After the BJP refused to join the majority government, the new Prime Minister HD Deve Gowda brought in the INC. The basis of the government was made up of representatives of regional and leftist parties. Political crisis Sonia Gandhi, leader of the INC

In April 1997, the INC refused to support the coalition led by Gowda, and the prime minister was forced to resign. His place was taken by Inder Kumar Gujral, appointed by the president and approved by parliament, who continued his predecessor’s course of economic liberalization and growth of economic indicators, but refused to further reduce spending on social sphere. India's foreign policy dialogue with Pakistan and China has intensified. The resignation of the Gujral government led to early parliamentary elections in March 1998. A coalition of 18 parties came to power, in which the BJP occupied a leading position. Political crisis Trilateral meeting of foreign ministers of China, India and Russia

The main task of the new Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee was to maintain the coalition government led by the BJP. In April 1999, a government crisis occurred and the government was forced to resign. The lower house of parliament was dissolved. New parliamentary elections took place in October 1999. Despite the active participation of the Indian National Congress in the election struggle, the National Democratic Alliance, led by the BJP, received a majority in parliament. Vajpayee became Prime Minister again. India's nuclear tests have complicated its relations with most countries in the world. In today's unstable situation, the factor of stability remains the figure of the president, who in 1997, for the first time in the history of the country, elected a representative of the former “untouchable” caste, Kocheril Raman Narayanan, who previously served as vice president under S. D. Sharma, who belonged to the Brahmin caste. Political crisis Atal Bihari Vajpayee

Conclusion After independence, India faced many paths of national development. Effective development The state was hampered by a number of internal problems: strong social differentiation, the presence of castes and dogmas, the problem of national minorities, the struggle between Hindus and Muslims. But despite the difficulties and obstacles in development, India has managed to reform and strengthen the social, economic and other spheres of society. Now India is a modern, dynamically developing state, actively participating in solving international problems.

After the Second World War, the British government began to realize that it would not be possible to keep India. The Indians understood this too. The Muslim League called for the creation of their own Muslim state. The problem of relations between Hindus and Muslims has become national. There were bloody clashes on religious grounds, in which thousands of people died. In the end, the parties came to the conclusion that it was necessary to separate Muslim territories into a separate state - Pakistan.
On August 15, 1947, India gained independence, and a new state was formed - Pakistan. The separation of part of the Indian territories into the separate state of Pakistan led to the emergence of huge flows of refugees from one side and the other. A severe interethnic conflict broke out.

The coming to power of the so-called national bourgeoisie in India contributed to the development of a political line for the development of an independent national economy and the formation of democratic forms of national statehood.

Constitution of the Independent State of India 1949(came into force in 1950) proclaimed the creation of a sovereign and democratic republic in which slavery and any form of forced labor were prohibited. The Constitution spoke of the equality of all citizens before the law, regardless of religion, race, caste, gender or place of birth. The Constitution proclaimed the inviolability of private property.

According to the form of government, India is a parliamentary republic. The highest legislative body according to the Constitution is the parliament, consisting of the head of state and two chambers - People's Chamber and the Council of States.

Jawaharlal Nehru(November 14, 1889 - May 27, 1964) - one of the leaders of the left wing of the Indian national liberation movement and the Indian National Congress, who became the first Prime Minister of India after the country gained independence on August 15, 1947. In domestic policy Nehru sought to reconcile all the peoples of India and Hindus with Muslims and Sikhs, who were at war political parties, and in economics - the principles of planning and market economics. He avoided radical decisions and managed to maintain the unity of the right, left and center factions of the Congress, maintaining a balance between them in his policies. Nehru, who enjoyed great authority in the world, became one of the authors of the policy of non-alignment with political blocs. He accepted economic assistance from the USSR, advocated the peaceful existence of states with different social order. In 1954, he put forward 5 principles of peaceful coexistence, on the basis of which a year later the Non-Aligned Movement arose.

Nehru's two pet projects were: establishing an Asian identity and non-alignment.

In 1967, as a result of internal political struggle, the Indian National Congress came to power. Indira Gandhi.

At this time, on the one hand, the state is developing in the country. sector and heavy industry is being created, the latest technologies are being created, agrarian reform is taking place (due to the redistribution of land between large landowners and the poor), and at the same time there is extreme poverty in the country, 70% of the country is in extreme poverty. All economic success takes place in a smaller part of the population.

1975 - A youth movement led by Indira’s son Sanjay Gandhi enters the political arena; a supporter of tough methods of solving problems => puts forward a program:

1. Elimination of illiteracy (going to the people, educating the masses + simultaneously explaining to them how good Indira Gandhi’s policies are)

2. Fight against casteism (elimination of untouchability) - upliftment of lower castes

3. Abolition of dowry

4. The fight for clean streets (demolition of old houses and construction of new ones from which they made a profit)

5. The fight against birth rates came down to the sterilization of the male population.

In the eighth elections 1984 The Indian National Congress, led by Rajiv Gandhi(he completely changes the political course):

1. Retreats from Gandhian socialism

2. Privatization begins, the state share decreases. sectors

3. India is leaning towards the USA, Germany and Japan - the internal and external course changes sharply

At the same time, Rajiv Gandhi's government is under attack for corruption, which has severely undermined faith in the Indian National Congress. A group of members emerges from it again in 1988.

1990s– sharp growth and modernization of the economy

Fourteenth elections 2004 – victory Hindu becomes prime minister of Indian National Congress - Manmohan Singh.

India is characterized by high rates of economic development, a growing share in the world economy and great prestige in the world political arena.

Ranking 7th in the world in terms of territory, India is second only to China in terms of population. Considering the high population growth (1.5-2% per year), it can be predicted that India is capable of overtaking China in this indicator.

in the World Bank ranking the country ranks 12th, slightly behind Brazil. When calculating GDP at purchasing power parity, according to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, in 2006 India ranked 5th in the list of the world's largest economies after the United States, China, Japan and Germany.

India has managed to normalize political and economic relations with China and Pakistan. The conflicts that existed between India and its neighbors, including territorial ones, which repeatedly led to military clashes, have not been completely eliminated, but are no longer in the foreground in today's complex international situation. India has acquired nuclear weapons.

Politically, India maintains friendly relations with modern Russia. This is mutually beneficial economic cooperation and joint actions in the international arena, when the interests and foreign economic concepts of Russia and India coincide.

It is characteristic that in relations with the United States, Indian leaders talk about a far-reaching strategic partnership, coupled with intensive economic cooperation.

Having extensive economic ties with the European Union, ASEAN and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) countries, participating in meetings of the Group of 8, the Commonwealth of Nations and other similar organizations, India is practically not included in any regional integration grouping. Some exceptions can be considered the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, which includes, in addition to India, its neighbors - Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and the Maldives. These states were once part of the orbit of former British India. In fact, the Indian economy is the core of the entire South Asian economy.

India, as one of the world's largest economies, was included in the G20, which was called upon to develop a strategy to overcome the global economic crisis. At the same time, India joined the BRIC group along with Russia, Brazil and China. The countries of this informal organization provided at least a third of the total growth of the world economy in the pre-crisis period.

There are actually 5 communist parties in India:

· Communist Party

· · Marxist Communist Party

· · Centrist Party of Marxist Intellectuals

· · Marxist-Leninist Communist Party

· · Naxalite movement

Independent Development of India

The powerful rise of the national liberation movement in India after the end of World War II forced the British to grant it independence. In 1947, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act. According to this law, the former colony was divided into two dominions - the Indian Union and Pakistan. Divided along religious lines, both states were hostile to each other from the very beginning. Their irreconcilable confrontation led to armed conflicts in 1947-1948, 1965 and 1971 (the last Indo-Pakistani conflict resulted in the creation of the state of Bangladesh on the territory of East Pakistan).

In 1950, India declared its complete independence. According to the adopted constitution, India became a federal state (its 25 states were created according to the national-territorial principle) and a parliamentary republic. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first prime minister of independent India. After independence, the Indian National Congress (INC) became the country's ruling party. A course was taken to create a mixed economy. The public sector and planning were assigned important role in the development of the country while maintaining the private sector.

J. Nehru managed to lay the foundations for the stable development of the country. During the entire period of India's independent development, there were no coups d'etat or military regimes. For a long time, the “Nehru clan” was in power - J. Nehru himself (until 1964) and members of his family: daughter Indira Gandhi (1966-1977, 1980-1984) and his grandson Rajiv Gandhi (1984-1989). All of them headed the INC, which was the ruling party. In the 90s of the twentieth century, a real multi-party system began to take shape in India. The period of INC dominance in political life country has ended. Strengthened opposition parties successfully competed with him in the parliamentary elections. In the 90s, for the first time in the country's history, coalition governments began to form without the participation of the INC.

Since independence, India has achieved significant success. It has created great industrial potential. Transformations in the agricultural sector made it possible in the 70s to abandon the import of food grains. But by the end of the 80s, it became clear that the existing market-command system had exhausted its capabilities. India was lagging behind the rest of the world. Her economic development occurred mainly due to the modern sector. Over 40 years of independence, by the beginning of the 90s, real per capita income increased by only 91%.

Therefore, since 1991, the government moved to implement economic reform. State control over private business was weakened, taxes were reduced, trade was liberalized, and some state enterprises. This attracted foreign investment and contributed to the improvement of the financial situation in the country. The pace of development of the Indian economy has increased noticeably. However, at present, India remains a country of contrasts, where the latest achievements of science and technology (including the nuclear and space industries) exist in parallel with economic backwardness. By the number of specialists with higher education It occupies one of the leading places in the world, but literacy in the country barely exceeds 50%.

The main socio-economic problems of modern India are overpopulation (in 2000 the population reached 1 billion people) and the low standard of living of Indians. Most the country's population does not participate in modern production, and therefore does not take advantage of it. Only 20% of Indians belong to the “middle class”, about 1% are wealthy, and the rest are poor. Relative social stability preserved thanks to the caste system, the traditions of which are extremely tenacious. The majority of the country's population belongs to lower castes, therefore they perceive existing inequality as a social norm and do not pretend to redistribute income.

The internal political situation was complicated by the aggravation of intercommunal relations, primarily between Hindus and Muslims, as well as between Sikhs and Hindus. In the 80-90s, there was a growth in Hindu nationalism, objectively aimed at limiting the rights of other religious faiths existing in the country. Intercommunal clashes led to colossal casualties and created a very real threat to the territorial integrity of the country.