Social inequality, its main theories
Structural functionalism as a sociological paradigm
Structural functionalism is a direction of sociological thought,
sociological paradigm, the essence of which is to highlight
elements of social interaction, determining their role and place in
larger social system or society as a whole, as well as their social
Founders:
I. Alfred Radcliffe-Brown
Key ideas:
· Social order supported by social institutions Social institutions- norms of behavior – supported by constant practices. Practices should not interfere with each other. In some cases they support each other. A process of “co-adaptation” arises.
· Functionalism is a way of organizing practices to maintain stability in society.
· Social structure is a set of stable social relations. There is a “total social structure” that is reproduced by sustainable practices. Evolutionism vs. Diffusionism. How to study society?
Comparison of practices across societies is necessary different types
II. Bronislaw Malinowski
Key ideas:
v Participant surveillance
· It is necessary to study the worldview and culture of people in order to understand how society is possible
v Reciprocity, principle of reciprocity:
· -General
· -Symmetrical
· -Negative
v Social action can only be explained by means
· understanding people's needs. It is necessary to understand their culture,
· their values and the way to satisfy the needs in this
· culture.
III. Talcott Parsons
· The world is systemic, so you need to study it systematically
· The system is a holistic formation. Its aspects are structure and process.
· Systems exist in interaction with the environment with which they are in exchange relations.
· Structure is a set of standardized relationships between elements of a system.
Element social system – active person(actor)
· Role is the expected behavior corresponding to the status and social position of the individual
Quantitative and qualitative methods in modern sociology
The methodology of sociological research is a set of methods
sociological research, methods and approaches to their application.
All methods of sociological research can be divided into two:
1) data collection methods
2) methods of processing sociological data
Data collection methods in sociological research are divided into two
1) quantitative methods
2) qualitative methods of sociological research.
Therefore, there are such types of sociological research as
quantitative and qualitative.
Qualitative methods sociology allows the sociologist to understand the essence
any social phenomenon, and quantitative ones - to understand how much
is it a massive (frequently encountered) social phenomenon and how important is it?
for society.
Quantitative research methods include:
· - sociological survey
· - content analysis of documents
· - interview method
· - observation
· - experiment
Qualitative methods of sociology:
· - focus group
· - case study (“case study”)
· - ethnographic research
· - unstructured interviews.
K. Marx on the origin of inequality
According to Marx, classes arise and confront on the basis of different
positions and various roles performed by individuals in production
structure of society, that is, the basis for the formation of classes is
social division labor.
In turn, the struggle between antagonistic social classes
acts as a source of social development.
1. The emergence of classes becomes possible only when growth
labor productivity leads to the emergence of a surplus product, and
common property on means of production is replaced by private
property.
2. With the advent of private property it becomes inevitable
wealth inequality within the community: individual clans and families
get richer, others become poor and find themselves economically dependent on
first. Elders, military leaders, priests and other persons forming
the clan nobility, using their position, enrich themselves at the expense of the community.
3. Development of production, growth of trade, increase in population destroy
the former unity of the clan and tribe. Thanks to the division of labor they grow
cities are centers of crafts and trade. On the ruins of the old, tribal system
arises class society, the characteristic feature of which is
antagonism between the exploiting and exploited classes.
4. The ruling classes being the owners of everyone or at least
the most important means of production, they have the opportunity to appropriate
the labor of the oppressed classes wholly or partially deprived of means
production.
5. Slavery, serfdom, wage labor form three successive
another method of exploitation, characterizing the three stages of class-
antagonistic society. With the first two methods of class
exploitation, the direct producer (slave, serf) was
legally powerless or lacking rights, personally dependent on the owner
means of production. In these societies “... class differences were recorded and
in the class division of the population, was accompanied by the establishment of a special
legal place in the state for each class... Division of society into
classes are inherent in slave, feudal, and bourgeois societies, but in
the first two there were classes-estates, and in the last there were classes
classless"
Thus, the basis of the inequality of society according to Marx is
economic development society. The more developed a society is economically
The more class inequality is felt.
To an outsider, Alter Road in Detroit looks like an ordinary city street. However, the locals call it " Berlin Wall"or the "Mazon-Dixon Line." This is explained by the fact that Alter Road separates the eastern part of Detroit - a poor ghetto from the fashionable, wealthy suburb of Grosse Pointe.
In The Wall Street Journal (1982), correspondent Amanda Bennett characterizes the communities living on opposite sides of Alter Road: "On the east side of Detroit live the poor, mostly blacks; Grosse Pointe is inhabited by the rich, all white. The school premises where the children of the residents study of Detroit's East Side, guarded by cops. Privileged kids from Grosse Pointe take violin lessons, have their own computers. For those living on the east side of Detroit, "allowance" is a word commonly associated with those living across Alter Road; with fraud. The differences are so striking that friends of Detroiters coming from other places are shocked when they are taken along Alter Street. In the eastern part of the city there are dumps of abandoned cars, many burnt-out buildings, on the walls of which all sorts of inscriptions and drawings are scrawled. Along the littered streets. crowds of idle people mill about, and just a thousand feet away a different scene emerges - neatly trimmed hedges and painted shutters suggesting another world with lawnmowers, maids, two-car garages and charity events. As Democratic Senator John Kelly, who represents both groups, says, on the one hand, here is “west Beirut”, on the other, the fairy-tale country “Disneyland”. /273/
The economic downturn in the early 1980s affected the two communities differently. Bennett writes: "Lifestyles are changing at every level. On one side of Alter Road, an unemployed man is forced to give up his tennis club membership. On the other side, an unemployed woman can't afford a hamburger. In Grosse Pointe, a part-time sales rep is giving up his summer dacha, while in Detroit a prostitute, with insufficient employment, increases the price of her services. In Detroit, poor unemployed drunks drink one bottle for everyone. Some Grosse Pointe residents shamefully apply for benefits, others shamelessly rush to parties in search of influential employers.
The vast differences between these two groups clearly demonstrate the existence of "haves" and "have nots." This situation is one of the most important issues, of concern to sociologists. They examine it by analyzing three variables: inequality, stratification and class.
INEQUALITY, STRATIFICATION AND CLASS
A FEW EXAMPLES
IS INEQUALITY UNIVERSAL?
Religious leaders help to understand the meaning of life and death - they create a moral code that people follow to find salvation. Because this function is so important, religious leaders are usually rewarded more than ordinary members of society. This is not necessarily a matter of financial reward, since many members of the clergy or religious orders do not receive much money; the social reward is recognition and respect.
Governance is another key social function. Rulers have significantly more power than those they rule. For the ruling stratum, increased power is a reward, but they often become owners of a larger share of wealth, their prestige is higher than that of mere mortals.
Another leading area of focus is technology, according to Davis and Moore. "Technicians" operate in special areas - for example, in the field of improving military and agricultural equipment. Since this type of activity requires long and thorough training, society should provide large material benefits to technical specialists to stimulate people's desire to make efforts in this direction (Davis and Moore, 1945).
THEORIES OF CONFLICT: PROTECTING THE PRIVILEGES OF AUTHORITY
Conflict theorists disagree with the idea that inequality is natural way ensuring the survival of society. They not only point out the shortcomings of functionalist approaches (is it fair, for example, that soap merchants earn more than people who teach children to read?), but they also argue that functionalism is nothing more than an attempt to justify the status quo. According to them, this is the essence of inequality: it is the result of a situation where people who control social values (mainly wealth and power) are able to extract benefits for themselves (Tumin, 1953).
Marx
Many ideas on the problem of social inequality are drawn from Marxist theory stratification and class. According to Marx, human history can be divided into periods depending on the way in which the production of goods is carried out - he called this the mode of production. During the period of feudalism, the main method of production was agriculture: The nobleman owned the land, and his subjects cultivated it. In the capitalist period, business owners pay their employees, who use the money they earn to buy goods and services according to their wants and needs.
The mode of production determines the economic organization of each formation. Marx considered economic organization to be the fundamental aspect of social life. It includes technology, division of labor and, most importantly, the relationships that develop between people in the production system. These relationships play a key role in the Marxist concept of classes.
Marx argued that with any type of economic organization there is a ruling class that owns the means of production (factories, raw materials, etc.) and exercises control over them. Through economic power, the ruling class decides the fate of those who work for it. In a feudal society, the nobles exercise control over the serfs; in a capitalist society, the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) control the proletariat (workers). Let's give an example from modern life: The bourgeois are the owners of factories and their equipment (means of production), and the proletariat is usually represented by people working on the assembly line. This division of society into classes is the basis of Marx's theory. Marx also argued that history is a sequence of changes in which one class system (for example, feudalism) is transformed into another /280/ (for example, capitalism). During the transformation at the new stage of development, some features of the previous stage are preserved. For example, in England during the period of capitalism, the aristocracy continued to own land, it was a legacy feudal era. Marx also recognized that there was a division among the main classes - thus, within the bourgeoisie, shopkeepers and merchants differed in their position in the social hierarchy from the owners of the most important means of production (factories and land). Finally, Marx took into account the existence of the lumpen proletariat - criminals, drug addicts, etc., completely thrown out of society.
According to Marx, the essence of the relationship between the ruling and exploited classes is that the ruling class exploits the working class. The form of this exploitation depends on the method of production. Under capitalism, property owners buy workers' labor. It is the labor of workers that creates a product from raw materials. When this product is sold, property owners make a profit because it can be sold for more than it costs to produce. Marx emphasized that surplus value is created by workers:
PRODUCT COST - cost technical equipment and raw materials + wages workers + owner's profit (surplus value).
Marx concluded that workers would eventually understand: surplus value goes into the pockets of the owners of the means of production, not into their own. Once they understand this, they will see that they are being exploited. This will lead to deep, inevitable conflict between workers and owners. Marx predicted that as capitalism developed, the bourgeoisie would become richer and the proletariat poorer. The conflict will intensify, and eventually the workers will make a revolution. The revolution will become worldwide, leading to the overthrow of capitalism and the transition to socialism.
Marx's prediction did not come true; capitalism did not lead to the results he expected. Firstly, there was a significant stratification within the proletariat. The economy has seen a noticeable increase in the service sector; being wage earners, people from this sector do not necessarily identify themselves with the working class. Giorgiano Gagliani (1981) suggested that non-manual workers ("white collar") - from secretaries to engineers - are interested in an alliance with the capitalists: for political support, employers pay them higher wages than workers physical labor. Marx's theory /281/ is also weakened by the fact that the government and the capitalists themselves have become more sensitive to the needs and demands of workers due to political pressure and through the system of collective bargaining. Workers in the United States have high wages and bonuses, and they also receive unemployment benefits. For these reasons, they are unlikely to be inspired by Marx's call: “Proletarians have nothing to lose except their chains. They will gain the whole world. Workers of all countries, unite!”
Mikels
Other critics accepted the basic principles of Marx's theory but questioned the idea that economic organization was the main cause of conflict between classes. In his study of the activities of trade unions and political parties late XIX- beginning of the 20th century Robert Mikels proved that oligarchy (the power of a few) develops in any case if the size of the organization exceeds a certain value (say, increases from 1000 to 10,000 people). This theory is called the “iron law of oligarchy” (Mickels, 1959). The tendency towards concentration of power is mainly due to the structure of the organization. A huge number of people who make up an organization cannot discuss the issue in order to take action. They place responsibility for this on a few leaders whose power is increasing.
Dahrendorf
This "iron law" is characteristic of the entire organization social life, and not just economics. Ralph Dahrendorf (1959) argues that class conflict is determined by the nature of power. It is not caused by economic relations between superiors and subordinates; rather, its main reason is the power of some over others. It is not only the power of employers over workers that creates the basis for conflict; the latter can arise in any organization (hospital, military unit, university) where there are superiors and subordinates. /282/
WEBER'S THEORY: WEALTH - PRESTIGE - POWER
Max Weber, who wrote his scientific works several decades after Marx (1922-1970), unlike him, did not consider the organization of the economy to be the basis of stratification. Weber identified three main components of inequality. He saw them as interrelated and yet independent in essential respects. The first component is wealth inequality. Wealth means more than just your salary; The rich often do not work at all, but receive large incomes through property, investments, real estate or stocks and securities. Weber pointed out that representatives of different social classes - peasants, workers, merchants - have unequal opportunities for earning income and purchasing goods.
Study of status achievement factors
IN lately the study of intergenerational mobility gave way to the study of the characteristics of status acquisition. This is related to the analysis of the social mobility of people throughout their lives. Their mobility data is "read back" to identify factors influencing their current status. Thus, scientists have found that the most important factors that determine the status /293/ of a person are social and economic status, race, education, parental occupation, gender, family size, place
Table 9-3. Impact of Race and Gender on Occupational Status, 1984 (%)
|
Occupation |
White and others |
Latin Americans |
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Managerial and highly qualified specialists |
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Technical specialists, sales and administrative workers |
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Service workers |
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Workers of the production system of precision instruments, products, repair specialists |
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Operators, assemblers, laborers |
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Experts in agriculture, forestry and fishing |
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From the point of view Marxism, social inequality is a phenomenon that arose in certain historical conditions. Division of society into classes - this is the result of the social division of labor and the formation of private property relations. Classes are determined based on the fact of ownership or non-ownership of private property (land, capital, etc.). In any class socio-economic formation there are two antagonistic classes, for example, under capitalism - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Class relations necessarily presuppose the exploitation of one class by another, i.e. one class appropriates the results of the labor of another class, exploits and suppresses it. This kind of relationship constantly reproduces class conflict, which is the basis of social changes taking place in society.
Fundamentals of a modern multidimensional approach to studying social stratification were laid M. Weber.
Weber's approach to stratification is built taking into account Marxist theory, but significantly modifies and develops it. There are two main differences between the theory of M. Weber and the theory of K. Marx. Firstly, according to M. Weber, class division stems not only from control (or lack thereof) over the means of production, but also from economic differences not directly related to property. Such sources include occupational skills or qualifications that influence the types of jobs people obtain. For example, qualified workers are guaranteed higher wages. Secondly, along with the economic aspect of stratification, M. Weber took into account such aspects as power and prestige.
Thus, M. Weber believed that the social structure of a society is determined by three autonomous and interacting factors: property, power and prestige. In his opinion, differences in property give rise to economic classes, differences related to power give rise to political parties, and differences in “honors” give rise to status groups, or strata. He identified the following classes:
1. Positively privileged class- This is the class of owners who live on income from property.
2. Negatively privileged class includes those who have neither property nor qualifications to offer in the labor market.
3. Middle classes- these are classes consisting of independent peasants, artisans, officials employed in the private and public sectors, members of the liberal professions, as well as workers.
In addition to classes, M. Weber also identified strata in society. Strata- a community of people occupying a relatively close position in the professional, socio-economic and political hierarchies and having a similar level of influence and prestige.
Functionalist theory of K. Davis and W. Moore. From their point of view, stratification is an uneven distribution of material wealth, power functions and social prestige depending on the functional importance (significance) of a position. The most significant provisions of the functionalist theory are as follows.
Social differentiation, firstly, is an integral feature of any society, and secondly, it is functionally necessary, because it performs the functions of stimulation and social control in society.
As a result of the developing division of labor, individuals realize in a given society some useful features and, accordingly, occupy different social and professional positions. This both separates and binds them together.
People tend to rank social and professional positions, giving them a moral assessment. Why do some professions seem more prestigious to us than others? The ranking is based on two factors: functional importance for society (degree of assistance public good) and the deficiency of the role performed. The scarcity of the profession, in turn, is determined by the need to obtain special qualifications. For example, the profession of a driver is much less scarce than the profession of a doctor, since obtaining the latter involves a significantly longer period of training.
Those positions that are assigned a higher rank in accordance with their importance and scarcity provide their owners, on average, with greater rewards: income, power and prestige.
There is competition for more prestigious places, as a result of which they are occupied by the most capable representatives of a given society. In this way the functionality of the social organism is achieved.
3. SOCIAL MOBILITY.
4. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN MODERN RUSSIA.
“Any organized social group is always socially stratified. There was not and does not exist a single permanent social group that would be “flat” and in which all members would be equal. Societies without stratification, with real equality of their members, are a myth that never became a reality.”
P.A. Sorokin
1. SOCIAL INEQUALITY IN SOCIETY, ITS CAUSES AND SIGNIFICANCE. INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS FOR REGULATING INEQUALITY.
Social connections connect individuals into certain stable associations; groups, which are characterized by different characteristics, are differentiated according to various criteria. This could be gender, age, profession, etc. At the same time, we see that both individuals and groups occupy unequal positions in society. Inequality - characteristic feature any society. Research by anthropologists suggests that it already existed in primitive societies and was determined by strength, dexterity, courage, religious awareness, etc.
Sociologists explain the reasons for the origin of inequality in different ways. One of the first explanations of inequality in sociology was given by E. Durkheim in his work « On the division of social labor». The author's conclusion is that various types activities are valued differently in society. Accordingly, they form a certain hierarchy. Moreover, people themselves have different degrees of talent, skill, etc. Society must ensure that the most able and competent perform the most important functions; in turn, this determines various rewards
Marxists (K. Marx, F. Engels) main reason Inequalities are seen in the uneven distribution of ownership of the means of production. According to supporters of the functional approach (K. Davis, W. Moore), inequality and status distribution in society are based on the functional significance of a given status, its importance for society. According to the theory of social exchange (J. Homans), inequality in society arises in the process of unequal exchange of the results of human activity. Inequality acts as a natural way of self-regulation and survival of society, its organization, as an incentive to advance
Many modern researchers see the origins of social inequality in the natural differences between people in physical characteristics, personal qualities, internal energy, as well as in the strength of motivation aimed at satisfying the most significant, pressing needs. The initial differences between people in terms of physical characteristics and personal qualities lead to the fact that the strongest, most energetic, purposeful and highly motivated individuals gain an advantage in the exchange of social values. These advantages enable such individuals to make asymmetrical, unequal exchanges. In the course of constantly occurring intersecting asymmetrical exchanges, the formation of a normative basis for inequality begins. Regulatory frameworkis a set of specific norms that establish the behavior of an individual in accordance with their rank. Consolidation and creation begins legislative framework for the elevation of individual social groups in society.
The next stage in the formation of relations of inequality is the consolidation of the existing situation, which develops at some point during the exchange. This consolidation is carried out by creating regulatory framework, which establishes the ranking place (or status) of each individual or social group in social structure subject to availability at his disposal required quantity values. The nature of existing values shapes the type of structure in relation to which the status of an individual or group is determined. For example, the rank of an individual in the property structure (or relationship to the means of production) or the regulatory and official structure, etc. may be important.
The most common way to measure inequality is to compare the highest and lowest incomes. This phenomenon is called scale of inequality. Currently, the so-called decile coefficient(the ratio of average incomes of the 10% of the least affluent and 10% of the most affluent segments of the population). Another way is to analyze the share of family income spent on food (the rich pay 5-7% of their income for food).
If inequality characterizes the entire society as a whole, then poverty affects only part of the population. The scale of poverty Sociologists call the proportion of a country's population living below the official poverty line. Poverty threshold- this is the amount of money officially established as the minimum income, thanks to which an individual or family is able to purchase food, clothing and housing. It is also called the poverty level. The poverty line is set at the level of the minimum consumer basket. In our country the concept is also used living wage.
In 2007, the cost of living in Russia was a total of 3,809 rubles. The consumer basket looked like this: 1506 rubles – food products; 643 rubles – non-food products; 1410 rubles – services.
In sociology there is a distinction absolute And relative poverty.
Under absolute poverty is understood as a state in which an individual, with his income, is not able to satisfy even the basic needs for food, housing, clothing, warmth, or is able to satisfy only the minimum needs that ensure biological survival. The numerical criterion is the poverty threshold.
Under relative poverty refers to the inability to maintain a decent standard of living, or some standard accepted in society. Relative poverty measures how poor you are compared to other people. The lower limit of relative poverty is the subsistence minimum, or the poverty threshold, and the upper limit is the level decent standard of living(this is the amount of material goods that allow a person to lead a fairly comfortable standard of living, not feel disadvantaged, lead a decent lifestyle, and satisfy all reasonable needs).
In social statistics the following are accepted: standard of living indicators :
size and form of income;
consumption structure;
quality and provision of housing;
working and rest conditions;
state of the environment;
educational and cultural level of consumption;
health and life expectancy.
In 2004, the World Bank's Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Division prepared a special report assessing the state of poverty in Russia. According to the World Bank methodology, a person who has a thousand rubles a month and can spend no more than $3.5 a day can be considered poor in Russia. This is every fifth resident of the country. Bank analysts are amazed that the majority of the poor in Russia are working families, adults with secondary and vocational education, as well as families with children. According to World Bank calculations, when the income of citizens on a national scale falls by 10%, the number of poor people immediately increases by 50%.
Russian poverty is extremely sensitive to any shocks - the poor get richer faster in case of prosperity and get poorer in a crisis situation. The most typical factors that determine the risk of ending up in one or another group of the poor include: loss of health, low level of qualifications, exclusion from the labor market, high family “burden” (large families, single-parent families, etc.), individual characteristics associated with the way life, value orientations (reluctance to work, bad habits).
Currently sociological research conducted by various research teams and think tanks, give a varied picture of the scale of poverty in Russia. Moreover, estimates of the share of the poor in the population range from 50 to 80%. This is explained by the fact that different sociological groups rely on different theoretical and methodological bases. According to official statistics (Rosstat data), in 2007 the number of people living below the poverty line was 22.3 million people (15.8% of the population).
Deprivation. Deprivation should be understood as any condition that gives rise, or may give rise to an individual or group, to a sense of their own deprivation in comparison with other individuals (or groups), or with an internalized set of standards. The feeling of deprivation can be conscious or unconscious.
Five types of deprivation can be distinguished.
Economic deprivation stems from the uneven distribution of income in society and the limited satisfaction of the needs of some individuals and groups.
Social deprivation is explained by the tendency of society to value the qualities and abilities of some individuals and groups higher than others, expressing this assessment in the distribution of such social rewards as prestige, power, high status in society and corresponding participation in social life.
Organismicdeprivation associated with congenital or acquired individual deficiencies of a person - physical deformities, disabilities, dementia, etc.
Ethical deprivation is associated with a value conflict that arises when the ideals of individual individuals or groups do not coincide with the ideals of society.
Mentaldeprivation arises as a result of the formation of a value vacuum in an individual or group - the absence meaningful system values according to which they could build their lives.
Food for thought
Life expectancy at the turn of the century
(according to the UN)
Men Women
Japan 77 83
Australia 76 81
Sweden 76 81
Greece 76 81
Spain 75 82
Norway 75 80
Holland 75 81
UK 75 80
Germany 73 80
Armenia 71 78
Argentina 70 77
Türkiye 67 72
Egypt 65 68
Belarus 62.7 74.4
Russia 59 72
Kazakhstan 59 70
(Source magazine " Russian Federation Today", No. 13, 2001)
Average monthly earnings
US $3000
UK $2700
Germany 1700 dollars
Poland 459 dollars
Hungary 396 dollars
Czech Republic $394
Lithuania 280 dollars
China 200 dollars
Russia 90 dollars
Uzbekistan 49 dollars
Azerbaijan 46 dollars
Ukraine 39 dollars
Armenia 37 dollars
Moldova 33 dollars
Kyrgyzstan 22 dollars
Tajikistan 8.9 dollars
(Source: Russian Federation Today magazine, No. 10, 2001)
2. THE ESSENCE OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATION, ITS MAIN DIMENSIONS.
Modern society is characterized by groups that have significantly greater resources of wealth and power, rights and responsibilities, privileges and prestige than other groups. This hierarchically ordered way of distributing socially significant goods and their symbols expresses the essence of social stratification, with the help of which society ensures its integration by encouraging some types of social activities and suppressing others. The analysis of the vertical stratification of society is reflected in stratification theories. The very concept of " stratification"came to sociology from geology, where " stratum" means geological formation. This concept quite accurately conveys the content of social differentiation, when social groups are arranged in social space in a hierarchically organized, vertically sequential series along some dimension of inequality.
The stratification division is based on inequality between people, dividing them according to income, the prestige of their activities, political status. Everyone has their own place in the social hierarchy, and hence uneven distribution rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties, power and influence.
Thus, society has a multi-level structure; it is divided into social layers (or strata), which are located hierarchically. One of the authors of the theory of social stratification Pitirim Aleksandrovich Sorokin believed that stratification in society could be three types: economic, political and professional. This means that we must divide society according to the criteria of income (and wealth), according to the criteria of influence on the behavior of members of society and, finally, according to criteria related to the successful fulfillment of social roles, the presence of knowledge, skills, skills and intuition, which is assessed and rewarded by members of society.
In the works of P. Sorokin, several fundamental signs of the stratification of society into strata are highlighted:
economic (poor – rich);
professional (prestigious – non-prestigious work);
political (ruling - controlled);
personal (different abilities and qualities of people).
Sorokin’s point of view was successfully developed by his student, a prominent representative of functionalism Talcott Parsons, who believes that stratification is based on the value orientations of members of society. At the same time, the assessment and assignment of people to certain social strata is carried out according to the following main criteria:
qualitative characteristics of members of society, which are determined by genetic traits and prescribed statuses (origin, family ties, personal qualities and abilities);
role characteristics, which are determined by the set of roles that an individual plays in society (position, level of professionalism, level of knowledge, etc.);
characteristics of ownership of material and spiritual values (money, means of production, works of art, opportunities for spiritual and ideological influence on other layers of society, etc.).
Currently, the most influential point of view on the formation of social strata can be considered the theory of stratification K. Davis And W. Moore. From their point of view, inequality and status distribution in society are based on the functional significance of a given status, the requirements for fulfilling the role and the difficulty of filling social status, functionally significant for society.
Modern theories of social classes are also based on the theory of stratification. Most sociologists see a basic difference in attitudes to property, however, they recognize class-forming factors such as official status, power, prestige, etc. If a social stratum can denote a division according to one parameter, then for a class the basis is a number of class-forming parameters, and the ownership (the ability to manage) resources is the basis of the class division of society. Moreover, each class has different social opportunities and privileges, which is decisive condition upon achieving the most prestigious and rewarding statuses.
So, social stratification can be defined as a structured system of social inequality, in which individuals and social groups are ranked according to their social status in society.
In modern sociology, the following are distinguished: main criteria of social stratification:
income – the amount of cash receipts for a certain period (month, year);
wealth – accumulated income (movable and real estate);
power ;
education ;
prestige – public assessment of the significance of a particular activity, profession, status.
In modern sociology, there are many models of social stratification. Sociologists mainly distinguish three main classes: higher, average And lower. Sometimes they are also divided into levels inside. So, American sociologist U. L. Warner in his research « City- Yankees» (Yankee City) identified 6 classes: 1) upper upper class (the richest, of noble origin), 2) upper lower class (rich, but not from the aristocracy), 3) upper middle class (wealthy intelligentsia), 4) the lower layer of the middle class (“white collar workers”), 5) the upper layer of the lower class (workers), b) the lower layer of the lower class (lumpen, etc.).
The upper class includes persons occupying the highest positions in terms of power, wealth, education, and prestige. These are influential politicians and public figures, major businessmen, bankers, managers of leading companies, the military elite, prominent representatives of the scientific and creative intelligentsia. The upper class usually makes up a small percentage of the population (no more than 10%). Its role in the life of society is ambiguous. On the one hand, he has powerful means of influencing political power. On the other hand, his interests, the main of which are the preservation and increase of accumulated property, constantly collide with the interests of the rest of society. Without having sufficient numbers, the upper class is not a guarantor of the sustainability and stability of society
The middle class includes small and medium-sized entrepreneurs, managers, civil servants, military personnel, doctors, lawyers, teachers, engineers, highly skilled workers, farmers and some other categories. The middle class is characterized by economic independence and activity. It (primarily the entrepreneurial layer) provides employment to the population and most of national income. As a subject of politics, the middle class stands for strong law and order, legality, respect for human rights, as well as stable, sustainable power. He is an opponent of anarchy, arbitrariness and extremism in politics, a supporter of moderate, balanced, thoughtful reforms. Acting as an opponent of big capital and restraining the radical aspirations of the lower class, in general the middle class plays the role of a stabilizer of society, maintaining its balance and stability. Aristotle said that the middle class forms the basis of the stability of society. Assessing the middle class, the English historian A. Toynbee emphasized that modern Western civilization is, first of all, a middle-class civilization, and Western society became modern only after it managed to create a large and competent middle class. And, conversely, where, for various reasons, the middle class has not formed, there is socio-economic and political instability, the process of modernizing society is significantly hampered, etc.
It is possible to identify the main signs of belonging to the middle class:
the presence of property in the form of accumulated property or existing as a source of income (medium and small enterprises, shops, workshops, etc.);
high level of education (usually higher or secondary specialized), which can be characterized as intellectual property;
income, the amount of which fluctuates around the national average;
professional activity that has a fairly high prestige in society.
At the bottom of the social ladder is the lower class. It consists of people who have low incomes and are employed primarily in unskilled labor, as well as various declassed elements (beggars, homeless people, vagabonds, etc.). The very position of these layers determines their positions as unstable. Usually it is these layers that become the social base of radical and extremist parties.
If depicted graphically, the social stratification of a modern developed democratic society will look like a rhombus:
upper class
middle class
lower class
As you can see, the widest stabilizing part of the diamond, the “buffer” between the upper and lower classes, is occupied by the middle class, specific gravity which averages 60-80%.
The social stratification of a developing society will have a different profile. This is a pyramid, where the lower part from the base represents the lower class, which makes up the majority of the population, and upper part represented by the upper and middle classes, which together constitute a minority (less than 30%) of the population.
It must be borne in mind that the height and profile of stratification can vary, but not indefinitely. Leveling, movement towards the plane of stratification leads to the destruction of the economy, anarchy and chaos.
An unlimited increase in it is also fraught with catastrophic consequences. As noted by P.A. Sorokin, “there is a point of “saturation” beyond which society cannot move without the risk of a major catastrophe. When it is achieved, the social edifice collapses and its upper layers are overthrown.” 6
The formation and maintenance of social stratification is not an absolutely self-regulating and natural process. Power has a significant influence on him. Depending on its nature, certain adjustments may be made to the construction of a system for ranking social positions. We are essentially talking about one of the aspects of social control exercised in society by power structures.
Types of stratification. To stratify the population in different historical eras and in different societies, they used various principles and types of strata. Traditionally, there are four types of stratification systems: slavery, castes, estates, classes. However, in any society there is a combination of different stratification systems and many transitional forms. In modern sociology there are nine types stratification systems that can be used to describe any social organism: physical-genetic, slave-owning, caste, estate, class, etacracy, socio-professional, cultural-symbolic, cultural-normative.
Physico-genetic The stratification system is based on the differentiation of individuals and social groups according to natural socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, physical data - beauty, strength, dexterity). This “natural” stratification system dominated in primitive society, but continues to be reproduced to this day.
Slavery - an economic, social and legal form of enslavement of people, bordering on complete lack of rights and extreme inequality. Slavery is historically the first system of social stratification. Existed in the countries of the Ancient World (Egypt, Babylon, Greece, Rome). In some countries (USA, countries Latin America) slavery existed until the 19th century.
Caste system – a stratification system that presupposes the lifelong assignment of a person to a certain stratum depending on his origin. The caste was a closed group. Transition from one caste to another is impossible. The caste system was most widespread in India.
Estate system - a stratification system that involves the legal assignment of a person to a specific stratum. The rights and duties of each class were determined by law and sanctified by religion. Belonging to a class was mainly inherited. But in exceptional cases, marriages between classes or a transition from one class to another were possible. Estates were divided into privileged (nobles, clergy) and non-privileged (merchants, artisans, peasants).
Class system - an open stratification system that does not imply a legal or any other way of assigning an individual to a specific stratum. Belonging to classes is determined, first of all, by ownership of property and the level of income received. The class system is characteristic of modern industrial society. There are opportunities for transition from one stratum to another.
Etacratic The stratification system is characterized by the fact that the basis for the differentiation of social groups is their position in the power-state hierarchies. In ancient times, the ethacratic system was observed in Asian despotic states. In the twentieth century, it was inherent in “socialist societies.”
Social and professional The stratification system is based on the division of social groups depending on the content and conditions of work and occupation. Of particular importance are qualification requirements– possession of experience, skills and abilities. The approval and maintenance of the hierarchical order is ensured with the help of certificates (diplomas, licenses, patents, etc.), which record the level of qualifications and ability to perform certain types of activities. They are not inherited.
Cultural-symbolic the stratification system is based on differences in access to socially significant information, unequal opportunities to filter and interpret this information, and the ability to be a bearer of sacred (scientific, mystical) knowledge. Inequality is based on specific capital – symbolic, which allows one to manipulate society.
Cultural-normative stratification system. Differentiation is based on differences in lifestyle and behavioral norms of individuals and social groups. Here the groups are ranked into “noble - ignoble”, “elite - ordinary people– bottom”, etc. The lifestyle and behavior of social groups occupying high social positions often turn into normative guidelines and begin to play the role of moral regulation.
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Here Wright begins to modify the theory J.Remera and fixes three types of exploitation - exploitation based, respectively, on ownership of the means of production, on the organizational hierarchy and on the possession of qualification diplomas (the first, in his opinion, is more characteristic of capitalism, the second - for statism(state socialism), and the third - for (real) socialism). The last two types of exploitation, arising from the monopoly possession of organizational and qualification resources by modern managers and experts, according to Wright, are materialized in terms of their remuneration, which, in his opinion, is frankly rent-based in nature. (Before us, therefore, is a creative replacement for the old Marxist theory of “productive and unproductive labor »).
Finally, Wright’s borrowing in the heat of polemical struggle becomes increasingly clear Weberian issues and methodology. This is the transition to the level of individual consciousness, and the importance of formal qualifications for processes class formation, and slipping statements about the role of career trajectories as a dynamic aspect of class positions. Many points of contact obviously played an important role in provoking Wright's fiery discussion with neo-Weberians.
5. The life chances of social groups are determined not only by their current position in different markets, but are considered as a product of specific career opportunities. Prospects for social mobility become an internal factor in determining the position of different groups.
6. The most interesting and difficult point is the analysis of status positions determined by the prestige of education and profession, lifestyle, sociocultural guidelines and norms of behavior, as well as recording their connection with market positions. Status groups are real communities that carry out collective action, as opposed to classes, which represent only a possible basis for joint action
Conflict groups (classes) as subjects of ICA arise from the awareness of quasi-groups of their opposing int
