Oleg's campaign against Constantinople: description, history and consequences. Russian-Byzantine Treaty (907)
The year 907 in the history of Rus' was marked by the legendary campaign against Constantinople (or, as it was also called, Constantinople), which was led by the Novgorod prince Oleg. This event is associated with a lot of speculation and doubt on the part of historians, many of whom do not believe in its authenticity for a number of reasons. In this article we will tell you in detail about Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople ( summary), and let's try to figure out whether this event really happened as the ancient Russian chronicles depict it.
Who is Prince Oleg?
Oleg was the prince of Novgorod and the great from 882 to 912, which was the year of his death. After he received power over the Novgorod land (which happened after the death of Rurik) as regent of the minor Igor, he captured ancient Kyiv. It was this city that at that time was destined to become the capital and symbol of the unification of the two main centers for the Slavs. That is why historians often consider the founder Old Russian state. And Oleg’s subsequent campaign against Constantinople became the reason for him to be called “Prophetic”.
Why was Oleg called the Prophetic?
As the Tale tells us temporary years", Oleg's campaign against Constantinople took place in 907. The chronicle talks about how the city was besieged and taken, and the courage and sharp mind of the prince, who outwitted the Byzantines, is glorified. According to this source, he refused to take poisoned food from them, which is why he was nicknamed “The Prophetic One.” This is exactly what people in Rus' began to call Oleg, who defeated the Greeks. In turn, his name comes from Scandinavia, and when translated means “saint”.
March to Constantinople
As already mentioned above, the content of the campaign and Russian-Byzantine war described in PVL (Tale of Bygone Years). These events culminated in a peace treaty being signed in 907. This became popular among the people thanks to the following words: “The prophetic Oleg nailed his shield on the gates of Constantinople.” But, nevertheless, this campaign is not mentioned in Greek sources, and, in general, it is not mentioned anywhere except in Russian legends and chronicles.
In addition, already in 911 the Russians signed a new document. Moreover, none of the historians doubt the authenticity of the conclusion of this agreement.
Byzantium and the Rus
It should be noted that after the Rus' campaign against Constantinople in 860, Byzantine sources indicate nothing about conflicts with them. However, there is a number of indirect evidence confirming the opposite. For example, the instruction of Emperor Leo IV already at the beginning of the 10th century contains information that the hostile “northern Scythians” are using small size ships sailing at fast speed.
Oleg's hike through The Tale of Bygone Years
As the legend about Oleg’s campaign says, Constantinople was taken not only with the involvement of the Slavs, but also the Finno-Ugric tribes, which are listed in the ancient Russian written monument of the early 12th century - “The Tale of Bygone Years”. If you believe the chronicle, some warriors rode horses along the coast, while others moved by sea with the help of two thousand ships. Moreover, each ship accommodated more than thirty people. Historians are still hesitant about whether to believe the “Tale of Bygone Years” and whether the data about the campaign indicated in the chronicle are genuine.
Legends in the description of the trip
The legend about Prince Oleg's campaign against Constantinople contains a large number of legends. For example, the narrative indicates that the ships moved on wheels, on which they were placed by Oleg. The Byzantines were afraid of the Rus heading towards Constantinople and asked for peace. However, they brought back poisoned dishes, which the prince refused. Then the Greeks had no choice but to give their consent to what Oleg proposed. As the legend says, they had to pay 12 hryvnias to all soldiers, as well as a separate amount to the princes in Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Rostov and other cities except Novgorod. But the prince’s victories did not end there. In addition to the one-time payment, the Greeks of Byzantium had to pay a permanent tribute to the Rus, and also agree to conclude an agreement (we are talking about the same agreement signed in 907), which was supposed to regulate the conditions of stay and trade of Russian merchants in Greek cities. The parties took mutual oaths. And Oleg, in turn, committed the same famous act, which made him legendary, according to legend, in the eyes of the common people. He hung a shield on the gates of the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, as a victorious symbol. The Greeks were given the order to sew sails for the Slavic army. Chronicles say that it was after Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople was completed in 907 that the prince became popularly known as the “Prophetic One.”
However, if the stories of the ancient Russian chronicler about the Rus' raid on Constantinople in 860 are based only on Byzantine chronicles, then the story about this raid is based on information obtained from legends that were not written down. Moreover, several plots coincide with similar ones from the Scandinavian sagas.
Treaty of 907
What were the terms of the agreement, and was it concluded? If you believe the Tale of Bygone Years, then after the victorious actions of Prince Oleg in Constantinople, a document quite beneficial for Rus' was signed with the Greeks. The goal of its main provisions is considered to be the resumption of peaceful and good neighborly relations between these peoples and states. The Byzantine government took upon itself the obligation to pay the Rus a certain amount of annual tribute (and its size was quite substantial), as well as to pay a one-time payment of indemnity - both in money and in things, gold, rare fabrics, etc. The agreement stipulated the above the amount of ransoms for each warrior and the amount of monthly allowance that the Greeks had to give to Russian merchants.
Information about Oleg’s campaign from other sources
According to the information of the Novgorod First Chronicle, a number of events occurred in a different way. At the same time, the campaigns against Constantinople were carried out under the leadership and the “Prophetic” was just a governor. The chronicle describes Oleg’s legendary campaigns against Constantinople as follows. The year is indicated as 920, and the dating of the next raid places the events in 922. However, the description of the campaign in 920 is similar in detail to the description of Igor's campaign of 941, which is reflected in several documents.
The information contained in the Byzantine chronicles, written by Pseudo-Simeon at the end of the 10th century, provides information about the Rus. In one of the fragments, some historians see details pointing to the predictions of the sages about the future death of Oleg, and in the personality of Ross - the prince himself. Among popular science publications there is an opinion expressed by V. Nikolaev about the campaigns of the Russians against the Greeks, carried out around 904. If you believe his constructions (which were not mentioned in the chronicles of Pseudo-Simeon), then the Dews were defeated at Tricephalus by the Byzantine leader John Radin. And only a few managed to escape from the Greek weapons due to the insight of their prince.
A. Kuzmin, when studying the text of the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” about the actions of Oleg, suggested that the author used texts from Bulgarian or Greek sources about raids led by the prince. The chronicler quoted the phrases of the Greeks: “This is not Oleg, but Saint Demetrius, who was sent to us by God.” Such words indicate, according to the researcher, the time of events in 904 - the Byzantines did not provide assistance to the Thessalonians. And Demetrius of Thessalonica was considered the patron of the robbed city. As a result, a large number of residents of Thessalonica were slaughtered, and only some of them were able to be freed from the Arab pirates. These words of the Greeks about Demetrius, unclear in context, could contain indications of revenge from the saint on Constantinople, who was indirectly guilty of such a fate for the population.
How do historians interpret the information in the chronicle?
As mentioned above, information about the raid is contained only in Russian chronicles, and nothing is indicated in this regard in the Byzantine writings.
However, if we look at the text part of the document fragments, which is given in the Tale of Bygone Years, we can say that, after all, the information about the campaign of 907 is not completely fictitious. The lack of data in Greek sources is explained by some researchers by the incorrect date to which the war is attributed in the Tale of Bygone Years. There are a number of attempts to connect it with the campaign of the Rus (Dromites) in 904, while the Greeks fought with an army of pirates led by Leo of Tripoli. The theory that most closely resembles the truth is that of Boris Rybakov. According to their hypothesis, information about the raid in 907 should be attributed to the events in 860. This war was replaced by information about unsuccessful campaigns under leadership that was inspired by legends about the extraordinary liberation of the Christian population from pagan tribes.
Dating of the campaign
It is not known exactly when exactly Prince Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople took place. The year to which these events are attributed (907) is conventional and appeared after the chroniclers made own calculations. From the very beginning, the legends about the prince’s reign did not have an exact date, which is why later information was divided into stages that were attributed to the initial and final periods of his reign.
In addition, the Tale of Bygone Years contains information about the relative dating of the raid. It contains information that what was predicted by the sages (the death of the prince) actually happened five years after the campaign against Constantinople took place. If Oleg died no later than 912 (this is evidenced by the data on sacrifices in Tatishchev’s works, which took place during the appearance of Halley, the legendary comet), then the author calculated everything correctly.
The significance of Oleg's campaign against Constantinople
If the campaign really happened, then it can be considered a significant event. The document that was signed as a result of the campaign should be considered as a defining moment in the relations between the Greeks and the Russians for the next decades. Subsequent historical events, one way or another, were associated with the raids carried out by Prince Oleg, regardless of their correct dating.
Unification of Russian lands by Prince Oleg
Prince Oleg remained in Novgorod for three years, and then, having recruited an army from the Varangians and the Chud, Ilmen Slavs, Meri, Vesi, and Krivichi tribes under his control, he moved south. First, he occupied Smolensk and imprisoned his husband there, then he moved to the land of the northerners and here, in Lyubech, he also imprisoned his husband. Whether these tribes voluntarily submitted to Oleg or after resistance - the chronicle does not say. When Oleg reached Kyiv, Askold and Dir were already reigning there. The chronicle says that Oleg cunningly called them out of the city and killed them, and he himself took possession of Kiev and made it his capital, saying: “Behold, be the mother of the Russian city.”
The murder of Askold and Dir on the orders of Oleg. Engraving by F. A. Bruni. Before 1839
Prince Oleg built cities in order to hold the conquered peoples in his hands and protect them from attacks by nomads. They imposed tribute on the Ilmen Slavs, Krivichi and Merya. Novgorodians had to pay 300 hryvnia annually for the maintenance of a squad of Varangians. After this, Oleg begins to expand the boundaries of his possessions, conquering the tribes that lived to the east and west of the Dnieper. In 883, the Drevlyans, who were at enmity with the Polans, were conquered; They were subject to a black marten tribute from housing. The northerners paid tribute to the Khazars; Prince Oleg told them: “I am the enemy of the Khazars, and not you at all” - and the northerners, apparently without resistance, agreed to pay tribute to him. Oleg sent Radimichi to ask: “Who are you giving tribute to?” They answered: “Khazars.” “Don’t give it to the Khazars, but give it to me,” Oleg ordered to tell them, and the Radimichi began to pay tribute to him, two shelyags per raal, as they had previously paid to the Khazars. Not all tribes, however, submitted so easily: according to the chronicler, it took 20 years to conquer the Dulebs, Croats, and Tiverts, but Oleg was never able to conquer the Ulichs.
Prince Oleg's campaign against Constantinople
In 907, Prince Oleg launched a campaign against the Greeks, leaving Igor in Kyiv. Oleg's army consisted of the Varangians, Ilmen Slavs, Chud, Krivichi, Meri, Polans, Severians, Drevlyans, Radimichi, Croats, Dulebs and Tiverts. We rode on horses and ships. According to the chronicle, there were 2000 ships, and each ship had 40 people; but, of course, one cannot attach absolute significance to these figures. The chronicle adorns the story of this campaign various kinds legends. As the Russians approached Constantinople, the Greeks closed the harbor and locked the city. Prince Oleg came onto land and began to devastate the surrounding area, destroy buildings and temples, torture, beat and throw residents into the sea; He then ordered the boats to be put on wheels and, with a fair wind, moved towards the city. The Greeks were frightened and asked not to destroy the cities, agreeing to give whatever tribute Oleg wanted. They then decided to get rid of Oleg with poison, but Oleg guessed and did not accept the food and drinks sent to him by the Greeks.
Prince Oleg's fleet goes to Constantinople along the Dnieper River. Engraving by F. A. Bruni. Before 1839
After this, negotiations began. Prince Oleg sent ambassadors Karl, Farlof, Velmud, Rulav and Stemir to the emperor, who demanded 12 hryvnia per ship and provisions for the cities of Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Polotsk, Rostov, Lyubech and others, since Oleg’s husbands were in these cities. The Russian ambassadors then demanded that Rus', coming to Tsar-Grad, could take as much food as it wanted, wash in the baths, and stock up on anchors, ropes, sails, etc. from the Greek king for the return trip. The Byzantine emperor accepted these conditions with some changes: Russians who did not come for trade do not take months; the prince must prohibit the Russians from plundering Greek villages; in Constantinople, Russians can only live with St. Moms; the emperor sends an official to rewrite their names, and then the Russians take their months - first the people of Kiev, then the Chernigovites, Pereyaslavl, etc.; They must enter the city unarmed, in a number of no more than 50 people, accompanied by an imperial official, and then they can trade duty free. Emperors Leo and Alexander kissed the cross at the conclusion of this treaty, while Oleg and the men swore, according to Russian custom, with weapons, their god Perun and the cattle god Volos. The chronicle further reports that Oleg, returning home, ordered the Russians to sew silk sails, and the Slavs - linen ones, and that the soldiers, as a sign of victory, hung their shields on the gates of Tsar-Grad. Prince Oleg returned to Kyiv with gold, expensive fabrics, vegetables, wines and all sorts of designs. The people marveled at him and called him “the prophetic,” that is, a magician, a sorcerer: “By the way, people are trash and unvoiced,” the chronicler concludes.
Prince Oleg nails his shield to the gates of Constantinople. Engraving by F. Bruni, 1839
Treaty between Oleg and the Greeks in 911
In 911, Prince Oleg sent his husbands to Constantinople to approve the agreement concluded after the campaign. 5 men were sent who were present at the conclusion of the first treaty, and, in addition, nine more: Inegeld, Gudy, Ruald, Carn, Frelav, Ruar, Aktevu, Truan, Bidulfost - names, mostly sounding non-Slavic and showing that the squad then consisted mostly of Scandinavian Varangians. The ambassadors, on behalf of Oleg, other princes, boyars and the entire Russian land, concluded the following agreement with the Byzantine emperor: when analyzing a crime case, one must be based on accurate testimony; if anyone suspects a statement, he must swear according to the rites of his faith that it is false; execution is punishable for a false oath. If a Rusyn kills a Christian (i.e., a Greek) or vice versa, then the killer (if caught) must be killed at the place where he committed the murder; if he runs away and leaves the property, then, apart from the part of it that follows the law for his wife, the rest goes to the relatives of the murdered man; If the fugitive does not leave any property, he is considered to be on trial until he is caught and executed by death. For a blow with a sword or anything else, the culprit, according to Russian law, pays 5 liters of silver; if he is not able to pay this entire amount, then he must pay as much as he can, then take off the dress in which he walks, and swear, according to the rites of his faith, that he has no one who could pay for it; then the claim is terminated. If a Rusyn steals from a Christian or vice versa, and the thief is caught on the spot, then the owner of the stolen property, if the thief resists, can kill him with impunity; if the thief gives himself up without resistance, then he should be tied up and charged three times for what was stolen. If one of the Russians or Christians begins to torment someone, asking where the property is, and takes something by force, then he must pay three times for what he took. If a Greek ship is thrown onto a foreign land, and Russians happen to be there, then they must guard the ship with its cargo, send it to Christian land, escort it through every terrible place until it reaches a safe place; if the ship runs aground or is delayed by contrary winds, then the Russians must help the rowers guide it to the Greek land if it is close; if this misfortune happens near Russian land, then the ship is carried to the latter, the cargo is sold and the entire proceeds are brought to Constantinople, when the Russians go there for trade or with an embassy; If someone turns out to be killed or nailed down on that ship, or something goes missing, then the culprits are subject to the punishment indicated above. If a Russian or Greek happens to be in some country where there are Russian or Greek slaves, then he must ransom them and deliver them to their country, where the ransom amount will be paid to him; prisoners of war also return to their homeland, and whoever takes them prisoner receives the usual price of a slave. Russians can voluntarily enter the service of the Greek emperor. If Russian slaves are brought for sale to the Greeks or vice versa, then they are sold for 20 gold and released to their homeland. If a slave is stolen from Rus', leaves on his own or is taken away by force, and his master begins to complain, and the complaint is confirmed by the slave himself, then the latter returns to Rus'; Russian guests (merchants) who have lost a slave can look for him and take him back; whoever does not allow himself to be searched thereby loses the case. If one of the Russians in the service of the Byzantine emperor dies without disposing of his property, then it is sent to his relatives in Rus'; if it is ordered, then it goes to the one to whom it was bequeathed, and the heir receives property from fellow countrymen going to Greece. If the one who undertakes to deliver the property conceals it or does not return with it to Rus', then, upon the complaint of the Russians, he can be forcibly returned to the fatherland [Prof. M. F. Vladimirsky-Budanov interprets this article differently: if a criminal runs away, avoiding punishment, from Rus' to Greece, then let him be returned; when in this case Rus' lodges a complaint with the Greek government, the latter must seize him and return him by force to Rus'. In the chronicle, this passage is conveyed as follows: “if a villain returns to Rus', let Rus' be favored by the Christian kingdom, and he will be such and will not be returned to Rus'.” We adhered to the translation by S. M. Solovyov.]. The Russians should act exactly the same way regarding the Greeks. After the conclusion of the agreement, the Byzantine emperor presented the Russian ambassadors with gold, clothing, fabrics and, according to custom, assigned men to them, who took them to churches, showed them wealth and expounded the teachings of the Christian faith. Then the ambassadors were sent home, where they returned in 912.
In the autumn of the same year, according to the chronicle, Prince Oleg died and was buried in Kyiv on Shchekovitsa (“P.S.R. Let.”, I, 16). Oleg’s burial place is listed in the chronicle according to a legend that is not entirely reliable; there is another legend according to which Oleg died during a campaign to the north and was buried in Ladoga (Arkhangel. Let., pp. 10-11). The death of Prince Oleg is associated in the chronicles with a well-known legend that served as the motive for Pushkin’s poem: “The Song of the Prophetic Oleg.” According to the chronicler, Oleg reigned for 33 years, from 879 (the year of Rurik’s death) to 912; but the chronology of the first pages of the initial chronicle is extremely confused and inaccurate.
Prince Oleg at the horse bones. Painting by V. Vasnetsov, 1899
Literature about Prince Oleg
For a critical assessment of the chronicle information about Oleg, see Solovyov, Ilovaisky and Bestuzhev-Ryumin. The agreements between Russian princes and the Greeks gave rise to extensive literature, which is listed in M. F. Vladimirsky-Budanov, in the “Anthology on the History of Russian Law” (issue 1). The opinions of Evers and V.I. Sergeevich regarding the meaning of these treaties - see Igor Rurikovich.
Based on materials from the Brockhaus-Efron Encyclopedia
6415 (907) per year. Oleg went against the Greeks, leaving Igor in Kyiv; He took with him many Varangians, and Slavs, and Chuds, and Krivichi, and Meryu, and Polans, and Severians, and Drevlyans, and Radimichi, and Croats, and Dulebs, and Tiverts, known as interpreters: these were all called “Great Scythia” " And with all these Oleg went on horses and in ships; and the number of the ships was two thousand. And he came to Constantinople; The Greeks closed the Court and closed the city...
And Oleg ordered his soldiers to make wheels and put ships on wheels. And when a fair wind rose, they raised sails in the field and moved towards the city. The Greeks, seeing this, were frightened and said, sending to Oleg: “Do not destroy the city, we will agree to the tribute you want.” And Oleg stopped the soldiers, and they brought him food and wine, but did not accept it, since it was poisoned. And the Greeks were afraid and said: “This is not Oleg, but Saint Dmitry, sent to us by God.” And Oleg demanded to pay tribute for two thousand ships: twelve hryvnia per person, and there were forty men in each ship...
The Caesars Leon and Alexander made peace with Oleg, pledged to pay tribute and swore allegiance to each other: they themselves kissed the cross, and Oleg and his husbands were taken to swear allegiance according to Russian law, and they swore by their weapons and Perun, their god, and Volos, the god of cattle, and established peace. And Oleg said: “Sew sails from wool for Rus', and silk for the Slavs,” and so it was. And they hung their shields on the gates as a sign of victory, and left Constantinople. And Rus' raised sails of silk, and the Slavs raised silk, and the wind tore them apart. And the Slavs said: “Let’s take our thick sails, they are not given to know, the Slavs have silk sails.” And Oleg returned to Kyiv, carrying gold and grass, and fruits, and wine, and all sorts of ornaments. And they called Oleg the Prophetic, since the people were pagans and unenlightened.
NAIL YOUR SHIELD ON THE GATE
At the end of the chronicle story, a fact is given that caused particular delight among those who doubted the reliability of the chronicle messages: it says how, after the approval of peace, which is still to come, Oleg, as a sign of victory, hung his shield on the gates of the city and only then left for his homeland : “And hang your shield at the gates to show victory, and depart from Constantinople.”
Nihilistic historians made a lot of fun about this, considering this message the most legendary in the entire story, along with the movement of the boats on land under sails. But, in general, there was nothing to laugh at. Many historians have noted that reports of this kind of symbolic acts have repeatedly reached us from antiquity and do not represent any legend. Thus, the Bulgarian Khan Tervel at the beginning of the 8th century, after the war with Byzantium and the conclusion of peace with it, hung his shield on the gate of one of the Byzantine fortresses. And a few decades later, another Bulgarian ruler, Khan Krum, sought to thrust a spear into the gates of Constantinople as a sign of victory over the Byzantines.
The custom of hanging your shield on the gates of the city as a sign of peace was widespread among the ancient Normans. Thus, the “legend” acquires real features and may be another confirmation of the authenticity of Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople in 907.
LEGENDS ABOUT THE PROPHETIC OLEG
Oleg was a hero of Kyiv epics. The chronicle history of his war with the Greeks is permeated with folklore motifs. The prince allegedly moved to Byzantium a quarter of a century after the “reign” in Kyiv. When the Rus approached Constantinople in 907, the Greeks closed the fortress gates and blocked the bay with chains. “Prophetic” Oleg outwitted the Greeks. He ordered to put 2000 of his rooks on wheels. With a fair wind, the ships moved towards the city from the side of the field. The Greeks got scared and offered tribute. The prince won and hung his shield on the gates of Constantinople. Kyiv epics, retold by the chronicler, described Oleg’s campaign as a grandiose military enterprise. But this attack of the Rus was not noticed by the Greeks and was not reflected in any Byzantine chronicle.
The campaign “in boats on wheels” led to the conclusion of a peace beneficial for the Rus in 911. Oleg’s success can be explained by the fact that the Greeks remembered the pogrom committed by the Rus in 860, and hastened to pay off the barbarians when they reappeared at the walls of Constantinople in 907 The payment for peace on the frontiers was not burdensome for the rich imperial treasury. But to the barbarians, the “gold and pavoloks” (pieces of precious fabrics) received from the Greeks seemed like enormous wealth.
The Kiev chronicler recorded the legend that Oleg was a prince “among the Varangians” and in Kyiv he was surrounded by Varangians: “Oleg is the prince in Kiev and the Varangian men are with him.” In the West, the Varangians from Kievan Rus They were called Rus, or Normans. Bishop Liutprand of Cremona, who visited Constantinople in 968, listed all the main neighbors of Byzantium, including the Rus, “whom otherwise we (the inhabitants Western Europe. - R.S.) we call them Normans.” Data from chronicles and annals are confirmed in the text of Oleg and Igor’s agreements with the Greeks. Oleg's treaty of 911 begins with the words: “we are from the Russian family of Karla, Inegelf, Farlof, Veremud... like the message from Oleg...” All the Rus who participated in the conclusion of the treaty of 911 were undoubtedly Normans. The text of the agreement does not indicate the participation of merchants in negotiations with the Greeks. The Norman army, or rather its leaders, concluded an agreement with Byzantium.
The largest campaigns of the Rus against Constantinople in the 10th century. took place during a period when the Normans created for themselves extensive strongholds at a close distance from the borders of the empire. These points began to turn into the possessions of the most successful leaders, who there themselves turned into the owners of the conquered territories.
Oleg’s treaty with Byzantium in 911 included a list of persons sent to the emperor “from Oleg, the Grand Duke of Russia, and from everyone who is under the hand of his bright and great princes and his great boyars.” By the time of Oleg’s invasion, the Byzantines had very vague ideas about the internal order of the Rus and the titles of their leaders. But they still noticed that “Grand Duke” Oleg had other “bright and great princes” subordinate to him. The title of the kings reflected a fact aptly noted by the Greeks: the equality of military leaders - the Norman Vikings, who gathered “at the hand” of Oleg to march on the Greeks.
From the Tale of Bygone Years it follows that both the semi-legendary Askold and Dir, and King Oleg collected tribute only from the Slavic tribes on the territory of the Khazar Kaganate, without encountering resistance from the Khazars. Oleg declared to the Khazar tributaries - the northerners: “I am disgusting to them (the Khazars) ...” But that was all. There is evidence that in Kyiv before the beginning of the 10th century. there was a Khazar garrison. Thus, the power of the kagan over the surrounding tribes was not nominal. If the Russians had to wage a long war with the Khazars, memories of it would certainly be reflected in folklore and on the pages of the chronicle. Complete absence This kind of recollection leads to the conclusion that Khazaria sought to avoid clashes with the militant Normans and let their flotillas pass through its possessions to the Black Sea when this met the diplomatic goals of the Kaganate. It is known that the Khazars pursued the same policy towards the Normans in the Volga region. With the consent of the Kagan, the kings descended along the Volga into the Caspian Sea and ravaged the rich cities of Transcaucasia. Without conducting major military operations against the Khazars, their “allies” the Rus nevertheless robbed the Khazar tributaries through whose lands they passed, since they had no other way to provide themselves with food.
Short-lived Norman Khaganates that appeared in Eastern Europe in early period, least of all looked like durable state entities. After successful campaigns, the leaders of the Normans, having received rich booty, most often left their camps and went home to Scandinavia. No one in Kyiv knew for sure where Oleg died. According to an early version, after the campaign against the Greeks, the prince returned through Novgorod to his homeland (“across the sea”), where he died from a snake bite. The Novgorod chronicler recorded a local Ladoga legend that after the campaign Oleg passed through Novgorod to Ladoga and “there is his grave in Ladoza.” Kyiv chronicler of the 12th century. could not agree with these versions. In the eyes of the Kyiv patriot, the first Russian prince could not die anywhere except Kyiv, where “there is his grave to this day, as Olgov’s grave says.” By the 12th century. more than one king Oleg could have been buried in Kyiv soil, so the chronicler’s words about “Olga’s grave” were not fiction. But it is impossible to say whose remains rested in this grave.
Skrynnikov R.G. Old Russian state
HOW OLEG GOT LOST
Oleg, after a victorious campaign against Constantinople (911), returned not to Kyiv, but to Novgorod “and from there to Ladoga. There is his grave in Ladoz.” Other chronicles speak differently about Oleg’s burial place: “the friends say [that is, they sing in legends], as if I am going over the sea and will bite a serpent in his foot, and from that I will die.” The disagreements over where the founder of the Russian state died (as the Normanists characterize Oleg) are curious: the Russian people of the mid-11th century did not know exactly where he died - in Ladoga or in his homeland overseas. Seven decades later, another unexpected answer will appear: Oleg’s grave will be on the outskirts of Kyiv. All the data from the Novgorod “Ostromir Chronicle” are such that they do not allow us to draw a conclusion about the organizing role of the Normans not only for the long-established Kievan Rus, but even for that federation of northern tribes that experienced the brunt of the Varangian raids...
For dozens of years, the Russians landed on any shore of the “Khorezm” (“Khvalynsky”, Caspian) Sea and conducted peaceful trade, and at the very beginning of the 10th century, when Oleg owned Kiev, the “Rus” (in this case, obviously, Varangians of Russian service) produced a series of brutal and senseless attacks on residents of the Caspian coast.
The agreement - one of the earliest surviving ancient Russian diplomatic documents - was concluded after the successful campaign of the Kyiv prince Oleg and his squad against the Byzantine Empire in 907. It was originally compiled on Greek, but only the Russian translation has survived as part of The Tale of Bygone Years. The articles of the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 911 are devoted mainly to the consideration of various offenses and penalties for them. We are talking about liability for murder, for intentional beatings, for theft and robbery; on the procedure for assisting merchants of both countries during their voyages with goods; the rules for the ransom of prisoners are regulated; there are clauses about allied assistance to the Greeks from Rus' and about the order of service of the Russians in imperial army; about the procedure for returning escaped or kidnapped servants; the procedure for inheriting the property of Russians who died in Byzantium is described; regulated Russian trade in Byzantium.
Relationships with Byzantine Empire already from the 9th century. were essential element foreign policy Old Russian state. Probably already in the 30s or very early 40s. 9th century The Russian fleet raided the Byzantine city of Amastris on the southern Black Sea coast ( modern city Amasra in Turkey). Greek sources talk in sufficient detail about the attack of the “Rus people” on the Byzantine capital - Constantinople. In the Tale of Bygone Years, this campaign is erroneously dated to 866 and is associated with the names of semi-mythical Kyiv princes Askold and Dir.
News of the first diplomatic contacts between Rus' and its southern neighbor also date back to this time. As part of the embassy of the Byzantine emperor Theophilus (829-842), who arrived in 839 at the court of the Frankish emperor Louis the Pious, there were certain “suppliers for peace” from the “people of Ros”. They had been sent by their Khakan ruler to the Byzantine court, and were now returning to their homeland. Peaceful and even allied relations between Byzantium and Russia are attested by sources of the 2nd half of the 860s, primarily by the messages of the Patriarch of Constantinople Photius (858-867 and 877-886). During this period, through the efforts of Greek missionaries (their names have not reached us), the process of Christianization of Rus' began. However, this so-called “first baptism” of Rus' did not have significant consequences: its results were destroyed after the capture of Kyiv by the squads of Prince Oleg who came from Northern Rus'.
This event marked the consolidation under the rule of the northern, Scandinavian in origin, Rurik dynasty of lands along the transit Volkhov-Dnieper trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” Oleg, the new ruler of Rus' (his name is a variant of the Old Norse Helgi - sacred) first of all sought to establish his status in the confrontation with powerful neighbors - the Khazar Khaganate and the Byzantine Empire. It can be assumed that initially Oleg tried to maintain partnerships with Byzantium on the basis of a treaty in the 860s. However, his anti-Christian policies led to confrontation.
The story of Oleg's campaign against Constantinople in 907 is preserved in the Tale of Bygone Years. It contains a number of elements clearly of folkloric origin, and therefore many researchers have expressed doubts about its reliability. In addition, Greek sources report practically nothing about this military campaign. There are only isolated mentions of the “Ros” in documents from the time of Emperor Leo VI the Wise (886-912), as well as an unclear passage in the chronicle of pseudo-Simeon (late 10th century) about the participation of the “Ros” in the Byzantine war against the Arab fleet. The main argument in favor of the reality of the campaign of 907 should be considered the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 911. The authenticity of this document does not raise any doubts, and the conditions contained therein, extremely beneficial for Rus', could hardly have been achieved without military pressure on Byzantium.
In addition, the description in the Tale of Bygone Years of the negotiations between Oleg and the Byzantine emperors, co-rulers Leo and Alexander, is fully consistent with the well-known principles of Byzantine diplomatic practice. After Prince Oleg and his army appeared under the walls of Constantinople and ravaged the outskirts of the city, Emperor Leo VI and his co-ruler Alexander were forced to enter into negotiations with him. Oleg sent five ambassadors to the Byzantine emperors with his demands. The Greeks expressed their readiness to pay a one-time tribute to the Rus and allowed them duty-free trade in Constantinople. The agreement reached was secured by both parties through an oath: the emperors kissed the cross, and the Rus swore on their weapons and their deities Perun and Volos. The taking of the oath was apparently preceded by an agreement, since the oath was supposed to relate precisely to the practical articles of the contract that it was intended to confirm. We do not know what exactly the parties agreed on. It is clear, however, that the Rus demanded some kind of payments and benefits from the Greeks and that they received this in order to then leave the area of Constantinople.
The formal agreement between Rus' and Byzantium was apparently concluded in two stages: negotiations took place in 907, then the agreements reached were sealed with an oath. But the attestation of the text of the treaty was delayed in time and occurred only in 911. It is worth noting that the most beneficial articles of the treaty for the Rus - on the payment of indemnities (“ukladov”) by the Greeks and on the exemption of Russian merchants in Constantinople from paying duties - are only among the preliminary articles 907, but not in the main text of the treaty of 911. According to one version, the mention of duties was deliberately removed from the article “On Russian traders”, which was preserved only as a title. Perhaps the desire of the Byzantine rulers to conclude an agreement with Russia was also caused by the desire to gain an ally in the ongoing war against the Arabs. It is known that in the summer of the same year 911, 700 Russian soldiers took part in the Byzantine campaign against the Arab-occupied island of Crete. Perhaps they remained in the empire, entering military service there, after Oleg’s campaigns, and did not return to their homeland.
Detailed textual, diplomatic and legal analysis showed that the texts of the diplomatic protocol, acts and legal formulas preserved in the Old Russian text of the treaty of 911 are either translations of well-known Byzantine clerical formulas, attested in many surviving Greek authentic acts, or paraphrases of Byzantine monuments rights. Nestor included in the “Tale of Bygone Years” a Russian translation made from an authentic (that is, possessing the force of the original) copy of the act from a special copy book. Unfortunately, it has not yet been established when and by whom the translation was carried out, and under no circumstances did extracts from the copy books reach Rus'.
During the X–XI centuries. wars between Russia and Byzantium alternated with peaceful ones, and rather long pauses. These periods were marked by increased diplomatic actions between the two states - exchange of embassies, active trade. Clergymen, architects, and artists came to Rus' from Byzantium. After the Christianization of Rus', pilgrims began to travel in the opposite direction to holy places. The Tale of Bygone Years includes two more Russian-Byzantine treaties: between Prince Igor and Emperor Roman I Lekapin (944) and between Prince Svyatoslav and Emperor John I Tzimiskes (971). As with the 911 agreement, they are translations from the Greek originals. Most likely, all three texts fell into the hands of the compiler of The Tale of Bygone Years in the form of a single collection. At the same time, the text of the agreement of 1046 between Yaroslav the Wise and Emperor Constantine IX Monomakh is not in the Tale of Bygone Years.
Treaties with Byzantium are among the oldest written sources of Russian statehood. As international treaty acts, they fixed norms international law, as well as the legal norms of the contracting parties, which, thus, was drawn into the orbit of another cultural and legal tradition.
The norms of international law include those articles of the treaty of 911 and other Russian-Byzantine agreements, analogues of which are present in the texts of a number of other treaties of Byzantium. This applies to the limitation of the period of stay of foreigners in Constantinople, as well as to the norms of coastal law reflected in the treaty of 911. An analogue of the provisions of the same text on fugitive slaves may be clauses of some Byzantine-Bulgarian agreements. Byzantine diplomatic agreements included clauses on baths similar to the corresponding terms of the treaty of 907. Documentation Russian-Byzantine treaties, as researchers have repeatedly noted, owe much to the Byzantine clerical protocol. Therefore, they reflected Greek protocol and legal norms, clerical and diplomatic stereotypes, norms, and institutions. This, in particular, is the usual mention for Byzantine acts of co-rulers along with the ruling monarch: Leo, Alexander and Constantine in the treaty of 911, Romanus, Constantine and Stephen in the treaty of 944, John Tzimiskes, Basil and Constantine in the treaty of 971. Such There were usually no mentions either in Russian chronicles or in short Byzantine chronicles; on the contrary, in the form of Byzantine official documents it was a common element. The determining influence of Byzantine norms was reflected in the use of Greek measures of weight, monetary measures, as well Byzantine system chronology and dating: indicating the year from the Creation of the world and indict ( serial number year in a 15-year tax reporting cycle). The price of a slave in a contract like 911, as studies have shown, is close to a fork average price slave in Byzantium at that time.
It is important that the treaty of 911, as well as subsequent agreements, testified to the complete legal equality of both parties. The subjects of law were the subjects of the Russian prince and the Byzantine emperor, regardless of their place of residence, social status and religion. At the same time, the norms regulating crimes against the person were based mainly on the “Russian law”. This probably means a set of legal norms of customary law that were in force in Rus' by the beginning of the 10th century, that is, long before the adoption of Christianity.
From "The Tale of Bygone Years"
In the year 6420 [from the Creation of the world]. Oleg sent his men to make peace and establish an agreement between the Greeks and Russians, saying this: “A list from the agreement concluded under the same kings Leo and Alexander. We are from the Russian family - Karla, Inegeld, Farlaf, Veremud, Rulav, Gudy, Ruald, Karn, Frelav, Ruar, Aktevu, Truan, Lidul, Fost, Stemid - sent from Oleg, the Grand Duke of Russia, and from everyone who is at hand him, - the bright and great princes, and his great boyars, to you, Leo, Alexander and Constantine, the great autocrats in God, the Greek kings, to strengthen and certify the long-term friendship that existed between Christians and Russians, at the request of our great princes and by command, from all the Russians under his hand. Our Lordship, desiring above all in God to strengthen and certify the friendship that constantly existed between Christians and Russians, decided fairly, not only in words, but also in writing, and with a firm oath, swearing with their weapons, to confirm such friendship and certify it by faith and according to our law.
These are the essence of the chapters of the agreement regarding which we have committed ourselves by God's faith and friendship. With the first words of our agreement, we will make peace with you, Greeks, and we will begin to love each other with all our souls and with all our good will, and we will not allow any deception or crime to occur from those under the hands of our bright princes, since this is in our power; but we will try, as much as we can, to maintain with you, Greeks, in future years and forever an unchanging and unchanging friendship, expressed and committed to a letter with confirmation, certified by an oath. Likewise, you, Greeks, maintain the same unshakable and unchanging friendship for our bright Russian princes and for everyone who is under the hand of our bright prince always and in all years.
And about the chapters concerning possible atrocities, we will agree as follows: let those atrocities that are clearly certified be considered indisputably committed; and whichever they do not believe, let the party that seeks to swear that this crime will not be believed; and when that party swears, let the punishment be whatever the crime turns out to be.
About this: if anyone kills a Russian Christian or a Russian Christian, let him die at the scene of the murder. If the murderer runs away and turns out to be a rich man, then let the relative of the murdered man take that part of his property that is due by law, but let the murderer’s wife also keep what is due to her by law. If the escaped murderer turns out to be indigent, then let him remain on trial until he is found, and then let him die.
If someone strikes with a sword or beats with any other weapon, then for that blow or beating let him give 5 liters of silver according to Russian law; If the one who committed this offense is poor, then let him give as much as he can, so that let him take off the very clothes in which he walks, and about the remaining unpaid amount, let him swear by his faith that no one can help him, and let him not this balance is collected from him.
About this: if a Russian steals something from a Christian or, on the contrary, a Christian from a Russian, and the thief is caught by the victim at the very time when he commits the theft, or if the thief prepares to steal and is killed, then his death will not be exacted from either Christians or from Russians; but let the victim take back what he lost. If the thief gives himself up voluntarily, then let him be taken by the one from whom he stole, and let him be bound, and give back what he stole in triple the amount.
About this: if one of the Christians or one of the Russians attempts [robbery] through beatings and clearly takes by force something belonging to another, then let him return it in triple amount.
If a boat is thrown by a strong wind onto a foreign land and one of us Russians is there and helps save the boat with its cargo and send it back to the Greek land, then we carry it through every dangerous place until it comes to a safe place; If this boat is delayed by a storm or has run aground and cannot return to its place, then we, Russians, will help the rowers of that boat and see them off with their goods in good health. If the same misfortune happens to a Russian boat near the Greek land, then we will take it to the Russian land and let them sell the goods of that boat, so if it is possible to sell anything from that boat, then let us, the Russians, take it [to the Greek shore]. And when [we, Russians] come to the Greek land for trade or as an embassy to your king, then [we, Greeks] will honor the sold goods of their boat. If any of us Russians who arrived with the boat happen to be killed or something is taken from the boat, then let the culprits be sentenced to the above punishment.
About these: if a captive of one side or another is forcibly held by Russians or Greeks, having been sold into their country, and if, in fact, he turns out to be Russian or Greek, then let them redeem and return the ransomed person to his country and take the price of those who bought him, or let it be The price offered for it was that of servants. Also, if he is captured by those Greeks in the war, still let him return to his country and his usual price will be given for him, as already said above.
If there is a recruitment for the army and these [Russians] want to honor your king, and no matter how many of them come at what time, and want to stay with your king of their own free will, then so be it.
More about the Russians, about the prisoners. Those [captive Christians] who came from any country to Rus' and were sold [by the Russians] back to Greece, or captive Christians brought to Rus' from any country - all of these must be sold for 20 zlatnikov and returned to the Greek land.
About this: if a Russian servant is stolen, either runs away, or is forcibly sold and the Russians begin to complain, let them prove this about their servants and take him to Rus', but the merchants, if they lose the servant and appeal, let them demand it in court and, when they find , - they will take it. If someone does not allow an inquiry to be carried out, he will not be recognized as right.
And about the Russians serving in the Greek land with the Greek king. If someone dies without disposing of his property, and he does not have his own [in Greece], then let his property return to Rus' to his closest younger relatives. If he makes a will, then the one to whom he wrote to inherit his property will take what was bequeathed to him, and let him inherit it.
About Russian traders.
ABOUT different people who go to the Greek land and remain in debt. If the villain does not return to Rus', then let the Russians complain to the Greek kingdom, and he will be captured and returned by force to Rus'. Let the Russians do the same to the Greeks if the same thing happens.
As a sign of the strength and immutability that should be between you, Christians, and Russians, we created this peace treaty with Ivan’s writing on two charters - your Tsar’s and with our own hand - and sealed it with an oath to the present with an honest cross and the holy consubstantial Trinity of your one true God and gave it to our ambassadors. We swore to your king, appointed by God, as a divine creation, according to our faith and custom, not to violate for us and anyone from our country any of the established chapters of the peace treaty and friendship. And this writing was given to your kings for approval, so that this agreement would become the basis for the approval and certification of the peace existing between us. The month of September 2, index 15, in the year from the creation of the world 6420.”
Tsar Leon honored the Russian ambassadors with gifts - gold, and silks, and precious fabrics - and sent his husbands to show them the church beauty, the golden chambers and the wealth stored in them: a lot of gold, pavolok, gems and the passion of the Lord - the crown, nails, scarlet robe and relics of the saints, teaching them their faith and showing them the true faith. And so he released them to his land with great honor. The ambassadors sent by Oleg returned to him and told him all the speeches of both kings, how they concluded peace and established an agreement between the Greek and Russian lands and established not to break the oath - neither to the Greeks nor to Rus'.
(translation by D.S. Likhachev).
© Library Russian Academy sciences
Bibikov M.V. Rus' in Byzantine diplomacy: treaties between Rus' and the Greeks of the 10th century. // Ancient Rus'. Questions of medieval studies. 2005. No. 1 (19).
Litavrin G.G. Byzantium, Bulgaria, etc. Rus' (IX - early XII centuries). St. Petersburg, 2000.
Nazarenko A.V. Ancient Rus' on international routes. M., 2001.
Novoseltsev A.P. The formation of the Old Russian state and its first ruler // The most ancient states Eastern Europe. 1998 M., 2000.
The Tale of Bygone Years / Ed. V. P. Adrianova-Peretz. M.; L, 1950.
Which articles of the treaty relate to the economic sphere, and which to the political?
What was ethnic composition Russian ambassadors mentioned in the treaty?
What specifically Greek realities appear in the text of the treaty?
Why are Russians and Christians opposed in the treaty?
Is it possible to talk about a military alliance between Rus' and Byzantium on the basis of the treaty?
Treaties between Rus' and Byzantium (907, 911, 945, 971, 1043)
Treaties between Rus' and Byzantium (907, 911, 945, 971, 1043)
The so-called treaties between Russia and Byzantium are the first known international treaties Ancient Rus', which were concluded in 907, 911, 944, 971, 1043 . At the same time, today only Old Russian texts of treaties have been preserved, which were translated into Old Church Slavonic from Greek. Such treaties have come down to us as part of the Tale of Bygone Years, where they were included at the beginning of the eighth century. The earliest written sources of Russian law are considered to be the norms of the Russian Law.
The treaty of 907 is considered the first of the above treaties. However, the fact of his conclusion is disputed by some historical researchers. They suggest that the text itself is a chronicle construction. According to another assumption, it is considered as a preparatory treaty for the Treaty of 911.
The Treaty of 911 was concluded on September 2 after the most successful campaign of Prince Oleg’s squad against Byzantium. This agreement restored friendly relations and peace between the two states, and also determined the actual procedure for the ransom of prisoners, punishment for crimes committed by Russian and Greek merchants in Byzantium, changed coastal law, etc.
The Treaty of 945, which was concluded after the unsuccessful military campaigns of Prince Igor against Byzantium in 941 and 945, confirmed the norms of 911 in a slightly modified form. For example, the treaty of 945 obliged Russian merchants and ambassadors to use princely charters to enjoy previously established benefits. In addition, this agreement introduced many different restrictions for Russian merchants. Rus' also pledged not to lay claim to the Crimean possessions of Byzantium, and also not to leave its outposts at the mouth of the Dnieper and to help Byzantium in every possible way in military affairs.
The Treaty of 971 became a kind of outcome for the Russian-Byzantine war, which took place in 970 - 971. This agreement was concluded by Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich with the Emperor of Byzantium John Tzimiskes after the Russian troops were defeated near Dorostol. This agreement contained an obligation for Rus' not to wage war with Byzantium, and also not to push other parties to attack it (and also to provide Byzantium assistance in the event of such attacks).
The Treaty of 1043 was the result of the Russian-Byzantine War of 1043.
All treaties between Rus' and Byzantium are a valuable historical source of Ancient Rus', Russian-Byzantine relations and international law.
