Paths figures of speech table. Main tropes and stylistic figures
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Type of trail |
Definition | |
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1. Comparison |
A figurative definition of an object, phenomenon, or action based on its comparison with another object, phenomenon, or action. Comparison is always binary: it has a subject (what is being compared) and a predicate (what is being compared with). |
Under blue skies Magnificent carpets, Shining in the sun snow lies(Pushkin). Seven hills like seven bells (Tsvetaeva) |
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2. Metaphor |
Transferring a name from one object, phenomenon or action to another based on their similarity. Metaphor is a collapsed comparison in which the subject and predicate are combined in one word |
At seven bells– bell tower (Tsvetaeva). Lit East to the new dawn (Pushkin) |
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3. Metonymy |
Transfer of a name from one object, phenomenon or action to another based on their contiguity |
You can just hear a lonely woman wandering down the street somewhere harmonic(Isakovsky) |
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Figurative (metaphorical, metonymic) definition of an object, phenomenon or action |
Through wavy The fogs The moon sneaks through sad glades it's pouring sadly she is light (Pushkin) |
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5. Personification |
This is a metaphor in which inanimate objects are endowed with the properties of a living being, or non-personal objects (plants, animals) are endowed with human properties |
Sea laughed(M. Gorky). |
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6. Hyperbole |
Figurative exaggeration |
A yawn tears your mouth apart wider than the Gulf of Mexico(Mayakovsky). |
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Figurative understatement |
Below a thin blade of grass We must bow our heads (Nekrasov) |
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8. Paraphrase |
Replacing a word with a figurative descriptive phrase |
With a clear smile nature greets you through a dream morning of the year(Pushkin). Morning of the year - spring. |
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Using a word in a sense opposite to its literal meaning for the purpose of ridicule |
Otkole, smart, are you crazy? (address to the donkey in Krylov’s fable) |
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10. Allegory |
Two-dimensional use of a word, expression or whole text in the literal and figurative (allegorical) sense |
“Wolves and Sheep” (the title of the play by A. N. Ostrovsky, implying the strong, those in power and their victims) |
2.3.Figuration is a set of syntactic means of speech expressiveness, the most important of which are stylistic (rhetorical) figures.
Stylistic figures are symmetrical syntactic structures based on various kinds repetitions, omissions, and changes in word order to create emphasis.
Main types of figures
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Type of figure |
Definition | |
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1. Anaphora and epiphora |
Anaphora (unity of principle) – repetition of words or expressions at the beginning of adjacent text fragments. Epiphora (ending) – repetition of words or expressions at the end of adjacent text fragments. |
Us drove youth On a saber march, Us abandoned youth On the Kronstadt ice. War horses Carrying away us, On a wide area Killed us(Bagritsky) |
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A syntactic structure in which the beginning of the next fragment mirrors the ending of the previous one. |
Youth did not perish - Youth is alive! (Bagritsky) |
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3. Parallelism |
Identical syntactic structure of adjacent text fragments |
We have a place for young people everywhere, We honor old people everywhere (Lebedev-Kumach). |
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4. Inversion |
Violation of the usual word order |
Discordant sounds were heard from the bells (Nekrasov) |
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5. Antithesis |
Contrasting two adjacent structures, identical in structure, but opposite in meaning |
I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am God (Derzhavin). |
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6. Oxymoron |
Combining in one construction words that contradict each other in meaning |
“The Living Corpse” (the title of the play by L. N. Tolstoy). |
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7. Gradation |
This arrangement of words in which each subsequent one strengthens the meaning of the previous one (ascending gradation) or weakens it (descending gradation). |
Go, run, fly and avenge us (Pierre Corneille). |
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8. Ellipsis |
Intentional omission of any implied part of a sentence in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech |
We sat down in ashes, Cities - to dust, Swords - sickles and plows (Zhukovsky). |
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9. Default |
Deliberate interruption of a statement, giving the reader (listener) the opportunity to independently think about it |
No, I wanted... maybe you... I thought it was time for the baron to die (Pushkin). |
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10. Multi-union and non-union |
Intentionally using repeated conjunctions (multi-conjunction) or omitting conjunctions (non-conjunction) |
And snow, and wind, and stars flying at night (Oshanin). Or the plague will catch me, Or the frost will ossify me, Or a barrier will slam into my forehead A slow disabled person (Pushkin). Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts (Pushkin). |
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11. Rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals |
Questions, exclamations, appeals that do not require an answer, intended to attract the attention of the reader (listener) to what is being depicted |
Moscow! Moscow! I love you like a son (Lermontov). What is he looking for in a distant land? What did he throw in his native land? (Lermontov) |
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12. Period |
Circularly closing syntactic construction, in the center of which is anaphoric parallelism |
For everything, for everything you Thank you I: For secret torment of passions, For the bitterness of tears, the poison of a kiss, For enemies' revenge and slander For heat of the soul, wasted in the desert For everything I've been deceived by in life Just stand so that you I won't be for long thanked (Lermontov). |
Three styles:
High(solemn),
Average(mediocre),
Short(simple)
Cicero wrote that the ideal speaker is one who knows how to speak about the low simply, about the high - important and about the average - moderately.
Trails
- Trope- allegory. IN work of art words and expressions used in a figurative meaning in order to enhance the figurativeness of the language and the artistic expressiveness of speech.
Main types of trails:
- Metaphor
- Metonymy
- Synecdoche
- Hyperbola
- Litotes
- Comparison
- Periphrase
- Allegory
- Personification
- Irony
- Sarcasm
Metaphor
Metaphor- a trope that uses the name of an object of one class to describe an object of another class. The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor is essentially almost indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases there is a transfer of meaning from one to another. The extended metaphor has given rise to many genres.
An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using a comparison.
A figure of speech consisting of the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.
There are 4 “elements” in a metaphor:
An object within a specific category,
The process by which this object performs a function, and
Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.
Metonymy
- Metonymy- a type of trope, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object that is denoted by the replaced word. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense. Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused, while metonymy is based on the replacement of the word “by contiguity” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, representative instead of class or vice versa, container instead of content or vice versa, etc.), and metaphor - “by similarity.” A special case of metonymy is synecdoche.
Example: “All flags are visiting us,” where flags replace countries (a part replaces the whole).
Synecdoche
- Synecdoche- a trope consisting of naming a whole through its part or vice versa. Synecdoche is a type of metonymy.
Synecdoche is a technique consisting of transferring meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative similarity between them.
Examples:
- “The buyer chooses quality products.” The word “Buyer” replaces the entire set of possible buyers.
- “The stern moored to the shore.”
A ship is implied.
Hyperbola
- Hyperbola- a stylistic figure of obvious and deliberate exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the said thought, for example, “I said this a thousand times” or “we have enough food for six months.”
Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them an appropriate coloring: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors, etc. (“the waves rose like mountains”)
Litotes
- Litotes , litotes- a trope that has the meaning of understatement or deliberate softening.
Litotes is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the magnitude, strength of meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes in this sense is the opposite of hyperbole, which is why it is called differently inverse hyperbola. In litotes, on the basis of some common feature, two dissimilar phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.
For example: “A horse is the size of a cat”, “A person’s life is one moment”, etc.
Here is an example of litotes
Comparison
- Comparison- a trope in which one object or phenomenon is compared to another according to some characteristic common to them. The purpose of comparison is to identify new properties in the object of comparison that are important for the subject of the statement.
Night is a well without bottom
In comparison, there are: the object being compared (object of comparison), the object with which the comparison takes place. One of distinctive features comparison is the mention of both compared objects, while the common feature is not always mentioned.
Periphrase
- Periphrase , paraphrase , paraphrase- in the stylistics and poetics of a trope, descriptively expressing one concept with the help of several.
Periphrasis is an indirect mention of an object by not naming it, but describing it (for example, “night luminary” = “moon” or “I love you, Peter’s creation!” = “I love you, St. Petersburg!”).
In periphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their characteristics, for example, “who writes these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “fall into sleep” instead of “fall asleep,” “king of beasts” instead of “lion,” “one-armed bandit” instead of "slot machine", "Stagirite" instead of Aristotle. There are logical periphrases (“the author of “Dead Souls”) and figurative periphrases (“the sun of Russian poetry”).
Allegory
- Allegory- a conventional depiction of abstract ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.
As a trope, allegory is used in fables, parables, and morality tales; V fine arts is expressed by certain attributes. Allegory arose on the basis of mythology, was reflected in folklore, and was developed in the fine arts. The main way of depicting allegory is the generalization of human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy-tale characters, inanimate objects that acquire figurative meaning
Example: allegory of “justice” - Themis (woman with scales).
Allegory of time governed by wisdom (V. Titian 1565)
The qualities and appearance attached to these living beings are borrowed from the actions and consequences of what corresponds to the isolation contained in these concepts, for example, the isolation of battle and war is indicated by means of military weapons, seasons - by means of their corresponding flowers, fruits or activities, impartiality - by means of scales and blindfolds, death - through a clepsydra and a scythe.
Personification
- Personification- a type of metaphor, transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones. Very often, personification is used when depicting nature, which is endowed with certain human traits, for example:
And woe, woe, woe!
And grief was girded with a bast
,
My legs are tangled with washcloths.
Or: personification of the church =>
Irony
- Irony- a trope in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts (contrasted) with the explicit meaning. Irony creates the feeling that the subject of discussion is not what it seems.
According to Aristotle's definition, irony is “a statement containing ridicule of someone who really thinks so.”
- Irony- the use of words in a negative sense, directly opposite to the literal one. Example: “Well, you are brave!”, “Smart, smart...”. Here positive statements have negative connotations.
Sarcasm
- Sarcasm- one of the types of satirical exposure, caustic ridicule, the highest degree of irony, based not only on the enhanced contrast of the implied and the expressed, but also on the immediate deliberate exposure of the implied.
Sarcasm is a harsh mockery that can be opened with a positive judgment, but in general always contains a negative connotation and indicates a deficiency in a person, object or phenomenon, that is, in relation to which it is happening.
Like satire, sarcasm involves the fight against hostile phenomena of reality by ridiculing them. Ruthlessness and harshness of exposure are a distinctive feature of sarcasm. Unlike irony, the highest degree of indignation, hatred, is expressed in sarcasm. Sarcasm is never a characteristic technique of a humorist, who, revealing what is funny in reality, always portrays it with a certain amount of sympathy and sympathy.
Example: your question is very smart. Are you perhaps a real intellectual?
Quests
1) Give short definition word trope .
2) What kind of allegory is depicted on the left?
3) Name it as possible more types trope.
Thank you for your attention!!!
Polysemous word except direct meaning, i.e. primary, directly related to the object or phenomenon of reality ( varnish- “to varnish”), can also have a figurative meaning, secondary, not directly related to the real object ( varnish- “to embellish, to present something in at its best than it actually is").
Tropes are figures of speech in which a word or expression is used figuratively for the purpose of greater artistic expression, imagery.
Types of trails:
1. Epithet is a figurative definition that allows you to more vividly characterize the properties, qualities of objects or phenomena: deceived steppe, tanned hills, dissolute wind, drunken expression of a cloud(Chekhov).
General linguistic epithets that are constantly used are identified ( biting frost, quiet evening), folk poetic ( beautiful maiden, clear field, damp earth), individually-authored: marmalade mood(Chekhov), globe belly(Ilf, Petrov), the rough smell of mothballs(Nabokov).
2. Metaphor is a type of trope that is based on the transfer of meaning based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, nature of action, quality, etc. Metaphor is usually defined as a hidden comparison.
According to the degree of imagery, metaphors that are erased and general language are distinguished ( bow of the ship, gold hair, speech flows) and original, individually authored, speech: I open the pages of my palms(Okudzhava); this roach lives(about a person ) on his wife's estate(Chekhov).
According to the composition of words, metaphors can be simple (see above) and complex, expanded, cf. metaphorical image of a storm: Now the wind embraces flocks of waves with a strong embrace and throws them with wild anger onto the cliffs, smashing the emerald masses into dust and splashes.(Bitter).
3. Metonymy is a type of trope, which is based on transfer through contiguity, contact of objects, phenomena, their close connection in space and time. This is the connection between a) an object and the material from which it is made: If not on silver, I ate on gold(Griboyedov); b) content and containing: The theater is already full: the boxes are shining, the stalls and chairs, - everything is boiling(Pushkin); c) action and instrument of action: His pen breathes revenge(A.K. Tolstoy); d) the author and his work: Readily read Apuleius, but did not read Cicero(Pushkin), etc.
4. Synecdoche - transfer of meaning from a part to the whole or vice versa: All flags will visit us(Pushkin); using the singular instead of the plural or vice versa: And you could hear how the Frenchman rejoiced until dawn(Lermontov).
5. Comparison is a figurative expression based on the likening of one object to another based on a common characteristic. The comparison is expressed: a) instrumental case noun: Ippolit Matveyevich, unable to withstand all the shocks of night and day, laughed a rat laugh(Ilf, Petrov); b) using the words “similar”, “similar”: song that sounds like crying(Chekhov); c) phrases with comparative conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “exactly”: Tables, chairs, creaky cabinets were scattered throughout the rooms... like the bones of a dismantled skeleton(Nabokov); Life turned out to be rough and low, like a bass clef(Ilf, Petrov); d) shape comparative degree adjectives, adverbs: Beneath him is a stream of lighter azure(Lermontov).
6. Allegory - allegory, depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete image, for example, in fables, cowardice appears in the image of a hare, cunning - in the image of a fox, carelessness - in the image of a dragonfly, etc.
7. Hyperbole – strong exaggeration: A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper(Gogol); Oh, spring without end and without end - Without end and without end, a dream!(Block).
8. Litotes - understatement of the size, strength, significance of any object, phenomenon (this is a reverse hyperbole): Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, No more than a thimble(Griboyedov).
9. Irony is an allegory in which words acquire the opposite meaning, denial and ridicule under the guise of approval and agreement. Often used in fables: Break away, smart one, you're delirious, head(about a donkey)? (Krylov).
10. Personification – attributing to inanimate objects the properties of living beings: And star speaks to star(Lermontov); What are you howling about, night wind, Why are you complaining so madly?(Tyutchev); The steppe threw off the morning penumbra, smiled, sparkled(Chekhov).
11. Oxymoron – a combination of words with contrasting meanings: Mother! Your son is perfectly ill(Mayakovsky); And the snow burned and froze all around(Parsnip).
Types of figures of speech
In addition to tropes, stylistic syntax (figures of speech) techniques can be used to enhance the imagery and emotionality of artistic speech:
1. Antithesis - a sharp opposition of any phenomena, signs, etc. to give speech special expressiveness: They got along. Wave and stone, Poems and prose, Ice and fire are not so different from each other...(Pushkin); I see sad eyes, I hear cheerful speech(A.K. Tolstoy).
2. Inversion is an indirect word order that has a certain stylistic and semantic meaning: The servants do not dare to breathe, waiting for you around the table(Derzhavin); Smooth horns make noise in the straw. The sloping head of a cow(Zabolotsky).
3. Repetitions (words, several words, whole sentences) - are used to strengthen the statement, give the speech dynamism, a certain rhythm.
There are repetitions:
a) at the beginning of sentences (anaphora):
I know - the city will be,
I know that the garden will bloom,
When such people
In the Soviet country there is(Mayakovsky);
b) at the end of phrases (epiphora):
Dear friend, and in this quiet house
The fever hits me.
I can't find a place in a quiet house
Near the peaceful fire(Block);
c) at the junction of poetic lines (anadiplosis), which gives the effect of “enlarging” the overall picture of what is depicted:
He fell onto the cold snow,
On the cold snow, like a pine(Lermontov).
4. A rhetorical question that does not require an answer, serves to emotionally affirm or deny something: What Russian doesn't like driving fast?(Gogol); Was it not you who at first so viciously persecuted His free, bold gift?(Lermontov).
5. Rhetorical appeal - an appeal to an absent person, an inanimate object to enhance the expressiveness of speech: Greetings, deserted corner, Shelter of tranquility, work and inspiration.(Pushkin).
6. Gradation - alignment homogeneous members according to the principle of strengthening (ascending gradation) or weakening (descending gradation) of a characteristic, action: You were, you are, you will forever be!(Derzhavin).
Tropes and figures of speech are used not only in fiction, but also in journalism, in oratory, as well as in proverbs and sayings, in works of oral folk art.
Self-study assignments
1. Indicate the tropes and stylistic figures used in this text.
I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
Withered in gold,
I won't be young anymore.
Now you won't fight so much,
A heart touched by a chill,
And the country of birch chintz
It won't tempt you to wander around barefoot.
The wandering spirit! You are less and less often
You stir up the flame of your lips.
Oh my lost freshness
A riot of eyes and a flood of feelings.
I have now become more stingy in my desires,
My life, did I dream about you?
As if I were a booming early spring
He rode on a pink horse.
All of us, all of us in this world are perishable,
Copper quietly flows from the maple leaves...
May you be blessed forever,
What has come to flourish and die.
(S. Yesenin)
2. Determine which functional style an excerpt of this text has been written, justify your answer.
This day remained in me as a memory of the gentle smell of dusty homespun rugs with a cozy, clumsy old-age pattern, the feeling of warmth that the recently whitewashed walls were thoroughly saturated with, and the image of a huge stove, like a menacing black motor ship, grown into one of the white walls.
We drank fragrant, village-smelling tea from dull glasses, tasting it with the city cookies we had brought, and thick waterfalls of blood flowed down onto the striped oilcloth of the table. raspberry jam. Glasses clinked festively on the cup holders, a freshly woven silver web glittered slyly in the corner, and somehow a familiar haze of worn, frosty felt boots and wicker mushroom baskets floated into the room from the cold entryway.
We are going into a forest frozen in crystal winter forest. I was given an earflap hat that had been eaten by more than one generation of moths, felt boots that once belonged to Pukhov’s deceased grandfather, and a coat of Cheburashka fur that belonged to Pooh himself. We follow the drizzle-bound path leading to Nowhere, because near the forest it stops winding and ends up in the snowdrift pulp. Then only on skis. The skis are also Pooh, with one stick, covered in scales of peeling paint, like two flat skinny fish.
The frost burns my bare arms, pitifully peeking out from the short ones, not tall enough for my quilted jacket. The branches covered with mirror blue ring above our heads like a theatrical chandelier. And silence. (S.-M. Granik “My Pooh”)
TROPE
Trope is a word or expression used figuratively to create artistic image and achieving greater expressiveness. Paths include techniques such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes they include hyperboles and litotes. No work of art is complete without tropes. The artistic word is polysemantic; the writer creates images, playing with meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this constitutes the artistic possibilities of the word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
Pay attention!
When creating a trope, the word is always used in a figurative sense.
Let's look at different types of trails:
EPITHET(Greek Epitheton, attached) is one of the tropes, which is an artistic, figurative definition. An epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle face (S. Yesenin); these poor villages, this meager nature...(F. Tyutchev); transparent maiden (A. Blok);
participles: edge abandoned(S. Yesenin); frenzied dragon (A. Blok); takeoff illuminated(M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes together with their surrounding context: Here he is leader without squads(M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My little dove is dark!(M. Tsvetaeva).
Every epithet reflects the uniqueness of the author’s perception of the world, therefore it necessarily expresses some kind of assessment and has a subjective meaning: wooden shelf- not an epithet, since there is no artistic definition here, a wooden face is an epithet that expresses the speaker’s impression of the interlocutor’s facial expression, that is, creating an image.
There are stable (permanent) folklore epithets: remote burly kind Well done, It's clear sun, as well as tautological, that is, repetition epithets, the same root with the defined word: Eh, bitter grief, boring boredom, mortal! (A. Blok).
In a work of art an epithet can perform various functions:
- describe the subject figuratively: shining eyes, eyes- diamonds;
- create an atmosphere, mood: gloomy morning;
- convey the attitude of the author (storyteller, lyrical hero) to the subject being characterized: “Where will our prankster?" (A. Pushkin);
- combine all previous functions in equal shares (in most cases of using the epithet).
Pay attention! All color terms in a literary text they are epithets.
COMPARISON is an artistic technique (trope) in which an image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, likenings, in that it always has a strict formal sign: a comparative construction or a turnover with comparative conjunctions as if, as if, exactly, as if and the like. Expressions like he looked like... cannot be considered a comparison as a trope.
Examples of comparisons:
Comparison also plays certain roles in the text: sometimes authors use the so-called detailed comparison, revealing various signs phenomena or conveying your attitude to several phenomena. Often a work is entirely based on comparison, such as, for example, V. Bryusov’s poem “Sonnet to Form”:
PERSONALIZATION- an artistic technique (trope) in which an inanimate object, phenomenon or concept is given human properties (do not be confused, exactly human!). Personification can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the entire work is built (“You are my abandoned land” by S. Yesenin, “Mother and the evening killed by the Germans”, “The violin and a little nervously” by V. Mayakovsky, etc.). Personification is considered one of the types of metaphor (see below).
Impersonation task- to correlate the depicted object with a person, to make it closer to the reader, to figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the object, hidden from everyday life. Personification is one of the oldest figurative means of art.
HYPERBOLA(Greek: Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but by the nature of the use of the word in a figurative meaning to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite in content to hyperbole is LITOTES(Greek Litotes, simplicity) is an artistic understatement.
Hyperbole allows the author to show the reader in an exaggerated form the most characteristic features depicted object. Often hyperbole and litotes are used by the author in an ironic way, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author’s point of view, aspects of the subject.
METAPHOR(Greek Metaphora, transfer) - a type of so-called complex trope, a speech turn in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. A metaphor contains a hidden comparison, a figurative likening of phenomena using the figurative meaning of words; what the object is compared with is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that “to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities.”
Examples of metaphor:
METONYMY(Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - type of trope: figurative designation of an object according to one of its characteristics.
Examples of metonymy:
When studying the topic “Means of Artistic Expression” and completing assignments, pay special attention to the definitions of the concepts given. You must not only understand their meaning, but also know the terminology by heart. This will protect you from practical mistakes: knowing firmly that the technique of comparison has strict formal characteristics (see theory on topic 1), you will not confuse this technique with a number of other artistic techniques, which are also based on the comparison of several objects, but are not a comparison .
Please note that you must begin your answer either with the suggested words (by rewriting them) or with your own version of the beginning of the complete answer. This applies to all such tasks.
Recommended reading:
- Literary studies: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
- Polyakov M. Rhetoric and literature. Theoretical aspects. - In the book: Questions of poetics and artistic semantics. - M.: Sov. writer, 1978.
- Dictionary of literary terms. - M., 1974.
Trails
Trails
TRAILS (Greek tropoi) is a term of ancient stylistics denoting the artistic understanding and ordering of semantic changes in a word, various shifts in its semantic structure. Semasiology. The definition of T. is one of the most controversial issues already in the ancient theory of style. “A trope,” says Quintilian, “is a change in the proper meaning of a word or a verbal expression, which results in an enrichment of meaning. Both among grammarians and among philosophers there is an insoluble dispute about the genera, species, number of tropes and their systematization.”
Most theorists consider the main types of T. to be: metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche with their subtypes, i.e. T., based on the use of a word in a figurative meaning; but along with this, the number of T. also includes a number of phrases where the basic meaning of the word does not shift, but is enriched by revealing new additional meanings (connotations) in it - such as epithet, comparison, periphrasis, etc. In many cases, ancient theorists hesitate, where to classify this or that turnover - to T. or to figures. Thus, Cicero classifies periphrasis as figures, Quintilian as tropes. Leaving these disagreements aside, we can establish the following types T., described by theorists of antiquity, the Renaissance and the Enlightenment:
1. Epithet (Greek epitheton, Latin apositum) is a defining word, mainly when it adds new qualities to the meaning of the word being defined (epitheton ornans - decorating epithet). Wed. in Pushkin: “ruddy dawn”; Theorists pay special attention to the epithet with a figurative meaning (cf. Pushkin: “my harsh days”) and the epithet with the opposite meaning - the so-called. oxymoron (cf. Nekrasov: “poor luxury”).
2. Comparison (Latin comparatio) - revealing the meaning of a word by comparing it with another for some reason common feature(tertium comparisonis). Wed. from Pushkin: “youth is faster than a bird.” Disclosure of the meaning of a word by determining its logical content is called interpretation and refers to figures (see).
3. Periphrasis (Greek periphrasis, Latin circumlocutio) - “a method of presentation that describes a simple subject through complex phrases.” Wed. Pushkin has a parodic periphrase: “The young pet of Thalia and Melpomene, generously gifted by Apollo” (vm. young talented actress). One type of periphrasis is euphemism - the replacement with a descriptive phrase of a word that for some reason is considered obscene. Wed. from Gogol: “get by with the help of a scarf.”
Unlike the T. listed here, which are built on the enrichment of the unchanged basic meaning of the word, the following T. are built on shifts in the basic meaning of the word.
4. Metaphor (Latin translatio) - “the use of a word in a figurative meaning.”
The classic example given by Cicero is the “murmur of the sea.” The confluence of many metaphors forms an allegory and a riddle.
5. Synecdoche (Latin intellectio) - “the case when a whole thing is recognized by a small part or when a part is recognized by the whole.” The classic example given by Quintilian is “stern” instead of “ship”.
6. Metonymy (Latin denominatio) - “replacement of one name for an object with another, borrowed from related and similar objects.” Wed. from Lomonosov: “read Virgil.”
7. Antonomasia (Latin pronominatio) - replacement own name another, “as if a nickname borrowed from outside.” The classic example given by Quintilian is “destroyer of Carthage” instead of “Scipio”.
8. Metalepsis (Latin transumptio) - “a replacement that represents, as it were, a transition from one trope to another.” Wed. from Lomonosov - “ten harvests have passed...: here, after the harvest, of course, it’s summer, after the summer, a whole year.”
These are T., built on the use of words in a figurative meaning; theorists also note the possibility of simultaneous use of a word in a figurative and literal sense (the figure of synoikiosis) and the possibility of a confluence of contradictory metaphors (T. catachresis - Latin abusio).
Finally, a series of T. is highlighted, in which it is not the main meaning of the word that changes, but one or another shade of this meaning. These are:
9. Hyperbole - exaggeration taken to the point of “impossibility.” Wed. from Lomonosov: “running, faster than wind and lightning.”
10. Litotes - an understatement expressing through a negative phrase the content of a positive phrase (“a lot” in the meaning of “many”).
11. Irony is the expression in words of a meaning opposite to their meaning. Wed. Lomonosov’s characterization of Catiline by Cicero: “Yes! He is a timid and meek man...”
Theorists of modern times consider the three basic texts to be based on shifts in meaning—metaphor, metonymy, and synecdoche. A significant part of theoretical constructions in the style of the 19th-20th centuries. is devoted to the psychological or philosophical justification for the identification of these three T. (Berngardi, Gerber, Wackernagel, R. Meyer, Elster, Ben, Fischer, in Russian - Potebnya, Khartsiev, etc.). So they tried to justify the difference between T. and figures as between more and less perfect forms of sensory perception (Wakernagel) or as between “means of visualization” (Mittel der Veranschaulichung) and “means of mood” (Mittel der Stimmung - T. Fischer). In the same regard, they tried to establish differences between individual T. - for example. they wanted to see in synecdoche the expression of “direct view” (Anschaung), in metonymy - “reflection” (Reflexion), in metaphor - “fantasy” (Gerber). The tension and conventionality of all these constructions are obvious. Since, however, the direct material of observation is linguistic facts, a number of theorists of the 19th century. turns to linguistic data to substantiate the doctrine of T. and figures; Thus, Gerber contrasts T. as stylistic phenomena in the field of the semantic side of language - with figures as the stylistic use of the syntactic-grammatical structure of language; Potebnya and his school persistently point out the connection between stylistic technicalities and the range of semantic phenomena in a language (especially at the early stages of its development). However, all these attempts to find linguistic foundations stylistic theories do not lead to positive results with an idealistic understanding of language and consciousness; Only by taking into account the stages in the development of thinking and language can one find the linguistic foundations of stylistic phrases and figures, in particular, explain the fluidity of their boundaries as a result of the fluidity of the boundaries between semantics and grammar in a language - see Semasiology, Syntax, Language. It should further be remembered that the linguistic justification of stylistic texts does not at all replace or eliminate the need for literary consideration of them as phenomena. artistic style(as the futurists tried to claim). An assessment of T. and figures as phenomena of artistic style (see) is possible only as a result of specific literary and historical analysis; otherwise, we will return to those abstract disputes about the absolute value of one or another T., which are found among the rhetoricians of antiquity; However, the best minds of antiquity assessed T. not abstractly, but in terms of their applicability in the genres of rhetoric or poetry (for example, Cicero, Quintilian).
Stylistics, Semasiology.
Literary encyclopedia. - At 11 t.; M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Fritsche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .
Paths
(Greek tropos - turn, turn), speech patterns in which a word changes its direct meaning to a figurative one. Types of trails: metaphor– transfer of characteristics from one object to another, carried out on the basis of the associatively established identity of their individual characteristics (the so-called transfer by similarity); metonymy– transfer of names from subject to subject based on their objective logical connection (transfer by contiguity); synecdoche as a type of metonymy - transfer of a name from object to object based on their generic relationship (transfer by quantity); irony in the form of antiphrase or astheism - transfer of a name from object to object based on their logical opposition (transfer by contrast).
Tropes are common to all languages and are used in everyday speech. In it, they are either deliberately used in the form of idioms - stable phraseological units (for example: drip on your brains or pull yourself together), or arise as a consequence of a grammatical or syntactic error. In artistic speech, tropes are always used deliberately, introducing additional meanings, enhancing the expressiveness of images, and drawing the readers’ attention to a fragment of text that is important for the author. Tropes as figures of speech can, in turn, be emphasized by stylistic figures. Individual paths in artistic speech are developed, deployed over a large space of text, and as a result, the expanded metaphor turns into symbol or allegory. Besides, individual species tropes are historically associated with certain artistic methods: types of metonymy - with realism(type images can be considered synecdoche images), metaphor - with romanticism(in the broad sense of the term). Finally, in artistic and everyday speech, within a phrase or phrase, an overlap of tropes can occur: in the idiom he has a trained eye, the word trained is used in a metaphorical meaning, and the word eye is used as a synecdoche (singular instead of plural) and as a metonymy (instead of the word vision ).
Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .
See what “Trails” are in other dictionaries:
TRAILS (from Greek τροπή, Latin tropus turn, figure of speech). 1. In poetics, this is the ambiguous use of words (allegorical and literal), which are related to each other according to the principle of contiguity (metonymy, synecdoche), similarity (metaphor), ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
- (from the Greek tropos turn of speech),..1) in stylistics and poetics, the use of a word in a figurative sense, in which there is a shift in the semantics of the word from its direct meaning to a figurative one. On the relationship between the direct and figurative meanings of the word... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
Modern encyclopedia
- (Greek) Rhetorical figures of allegory, i.e. words used in a figurative, allegorical meaning. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
TRAILS, see Stylistics. Lermontov Encyclopedia / USSR Academy of Sciences. In t rus. lit. (Pushkin. House); Scientific ed. council of publishing house Sov. Encycl. ; Ch. ed. Manuilov V. A., Editorial Board: Andronikov I. L., Bazanov V. G., Bushmin A. S., Vatsuro V. E., Zhdanov V. V.,... ... Lermontov Encyclopedia
Trails- (from the Greek tropos turn, turn of speech), 1) in stylistics and poetics, the use of a word in a figurative sense, in which there is a shift in the semantics of the word from its direct meaning to a figurative one. On the relationship between the direct and figurative meanings of the word... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
