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Victorian England and its culture

Queen Victoria

The Victorian era is the period of the reign of Victoria, Queen of Great Britain (1837-1901).

It was in the second half of the 19th century that England showed its power to the whole world.

As a colonial empire, England developed industry with the help of the strong positions of the bourgeoisie. Neither war nor class struggle interfered. England during the Victorian era was a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system and a two-party system.

This time period was characterized by such phenomena as:

absence major wars;
stabilization of savings;
industrial development.

The Victorian era is also known as the Railway Age or the Age of Coal and Iron.

It was no coincidence that the period of Queen Victoria's reign was dubbed the railway period. When construction began in 1836, railroads covered the entire country within 10 years.

On the streets you could see cabs and omnibuses, and if you went to the countryside, there were more cabriolets and charabancs driving around there.

An omnibus is something like a horse-drawn bus.

The electric telegraph was used for the first time, and the sailing fleet was replaced by iron and steel steam ships. The production smelted cast iron, half of which was supplied to other countries by Britain.

By the way, foreign trade brought great profits. Gold mines in North America and Australia did their job, and England took a leading position in world trade.

Agriculture has also moved from dead center, and now machines could be seen to facilitate agricultural work. When the Corn Laws were repealed in 1846, social tensions subsided as workers finally saw decent incomes for themselves.

The Corn Laws were laws that were in force in Great Britain from 1815 to 1846. Any imported grain was taxed to protect English farmers.

But social inequality as a phenomenon has not disappeared; rather, on the contrary, it has become as contrasting as possible. One researcher even spoke of two races in England - the red-cheeked and the sallow-complexioned race.

Poor people often did not even have a roof over their heads, and those who were luckier huddled in the damp slums across the Thames. Poverty reached such an extent that at the age of 30 young people looked like 60-year-olds, losing their ability to work and strength. And malnutrition and miserable living conditions were only one of the reasons for this order of things - the owners forced their workers to work for 18 hours.

The situation began to change slightly after the passage of a law limiting the working day to 14 hours in 1878. Children under 14 years of age were no longer taken into production, especially hazardous ones that involved lead and arsenic. But all these measures still did not save the poor from their miserable situation.

At the same time, lords, high churchmen, ambassadors and dignitaries of the state settled in their magnificent mansions in the west of the city. They loved to engage in hunting, horse racing, swimming, boxing, and in the evening they went to balls and theaters, where high society ladies wore corsets according to fashion.

However, only the richest among the aristocrats could afford this, while the rest - officials, merchants and the highest paid workers - had fun only on Sunday, relaxing on the lawn in the city park.

Queen Victoria was only 18 years old when she came to the throne in 1837. She reigned for 64 of her 82 years of life. She was respected, although there was no talk of a brilliant mind or talents. All her life she adhered to the principle of “reign, but not governing,” placing all the reins of government in the hands of ministers.

Sources:

Encyclopedia for children. Volume 1. World History
http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn_laws
Soroko-Tsyupa O., Smirnov V., Poskonin V. The world at the beginning of the 20th century, 1898 - 1918

This is how the British called the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). During this period there were no major wars, the economy, especially industry, stabilized. It is no coincidence that this time was dubbed the “railroad age” and the “age of coal and iron.” In 1836-1837 Construction has begun in England railways, and within ten years the whole country was covered with them.

Comfortable landaulets, two-wheeled and four-wheeled cabs, as well as omnibuses (a kind of horse-drawn bus) drove around the city streets. In rural areas they traveled in convertibles, charabancs and pony-drawn carriages.

At the same time, the electric telegraph appeared. This was followed by the replacement of the sailing fleet with ships made of iron and steel, which were propelled by steam. The demand for metal increased sharply, but by the middle of the century Britain was producing about half of the total amount of pig iron smelted in the world.

Revenues from foreign trade significantly replenished the English treasury. The discovery of gold mines in the colonies of Australia and North America strengthened England's position in world trade. In 1870, the volume of foreign trade of Great Britain exceeded that of France, Germany and Italy combined, and was 3-4 times higher than the volume of trade of the United States of America.

Various machines began to be used more often in agricultural work, and agriculture moved along the path of progress. After the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, food prices stabilized. The wealth accumulated by the mid-Victorian era greatly eased social tensions in the country, as working people's incomes increased significantly. However, this did not mean the disappearance of social inequality. One researcher wrote this about England at the end of Queen Victoria's reign: “Nowhere are the contrasts of wealth and poverty so sharp as in England, and none of the European capitals has anything like the “poverty quarters” of London. The English are not divided into two races - into the red-cheeked race and the sallow-faced race."

If in the western part of London, the West End, there were many magnificent mansions, then in the eastern part, across the Thames and on the outskirts, the poor lived in slums. Terrible cramped conditions and dampness reigned in these dwellings. Many had no roof over their heads at all.

From constant malnutrition and poor nutritional food, the poor quickly lost strength and efficiency and already looked like 60 years old after only 30 years. It was not until 1878 that a law was passed limiting the working day to 14 hours. However, in some places the owners forced their workers to work 17-18 hours a day.

The lot of women and children employed in industrial production has eased somewhat. They stopped taking children under 12-14 years old into factories. They were not accepted into foundries for “harmful” production (using lead, arsenic, phosphorus), and they were required to have a health certificate upon entering the factory. However, such government measures could hardly save poor families from poverty. Charles Dickens wrote a lot about England of the Victorian era, about its social contrasts, about the life of little ragamuffins in the London slums. The national wealth of England in the Victorian era was created through truly hard work.

The life of the “powers of this world” presented a completely different picture. Lords, government dignitaries, high church officials, and ambassadors of great powers lived in the aristocratic area of the western part of the city, built up with magnificent mansions. One Russian traveler described the scene of tea drinking in such a house: “The table is covered with a snow-white tablecloth, laden with expensive dishes and silver. Luxury dishes and abundance in everything - characteristic feature household middle and upper class Englishmen. In front of the mistress of the house's chair is a tray with cups and a teapot; A huge vessel of water is boiling over burning coals. The whole family: the older children, father, mother come out in full dress to the tea table... As soon as the family has sat down, the door opens and a maid in a white apron and a white cap brings in the food.”

The British in the Victorian era devoted a lot of time to sports and various physical exercises. They were engaged in hunting, horse racing, horse riding, swimming, fishing, playing ball, and boxing. In the evening they attended theaters, balls, and various entertainment venues. However, these entertainments were affordable only for the richest. Small traders and officials, highly paid workers and employees rested one day a week - on Sunday. As a rule, they spent this day off in nature, in the park, on the lawn. This is how Dickens described these walks: “Gentlemen in waistcoats of stunning colors with watch chains running through them walk along the grass in a row, striking everyone with their importance (“peacock-like” - in the words of one joker); ladies, fanning themselves with new scarves the size of a small tablecloth, frolic on the lawn... grooms, not afraid of expense, order bottles of ginger lemonade for their beloved, and their beloved wash it down with countless oysters and shrimp; young men in tall top hats jauntily tilted to one side smoke cigars and pretend to enjoy it; Gentlemen in pink shirts and blue vests swing canes, occasionally knocking themselves and other walkers over with them. The toilets here often make you smile, but... general view These people are neat, contented, they are in a good-natured mood and willingly communicate with each other.”

For almost a century, the country did not wage major wars and was not exposed to any serious national danger. This allowed the British to devote all their attention to internal affairs: inventing new and improving old machines and mechanisms, erecting beautiful buildings, taking care of the upbringing and education of the younger generation. That is why they remember the Victorian era with extraordinary warmth as the “golden age” in the history of England.

But by the end of the 19th century. England lost its industrial primacy, losing it to the USA and Germany in steel smelting and coal mining. England's monopoly position on the world market also came to an end. The war with the Boers began. The Victorian era is over.

They were animated by a firm determination to oppose any further triumph of the democratic principle. New elections, called as a result of the change in monarch, strengthened the Conservative Party. The large cities of England, Scotland and Ireland voted predominantly in favor of the liberal and radical factions, but the English counties for the most part elected opponents of the ministry.

Meanwhile, the policies of previous years created significant difficulties for the government. In Canada, the discord between the mother country and the local parliament has reached dangerous proportions. The Ministry received permission to suspend the Canadian Constitution and sent Earl Dergham to Canada with extensive powers. Dergam acted energetically and skillfully, but the opposition accused him of abuse of power, as a result of which he had to resign from his position.

The government's weakness showed itself even more clearly in Irish affairs. The Ministry could achieve approval of the Irish tithe bill only after the complete elimination of the appropriation paragraph.

Chartism

At that time, the radicals formed an extreme faction that developed the “People's Charter” - a petition to parliament, which demanded universal suffrage, secret voting, annually renewed parliaments, etc. Beginning in the fall of 1838, the Chartists launched a strong campaign at meetings, collecting signatures for petitions and convened the so-called national convention in London at the beginning of 1839, looking for supporters among the working population of factory towns. The uprising that took place in the summer of 1839 was suppressed; the main Chartist leaders were put on trial and sent into exile. Chartism achieved a reduction in the working day.

Foreign and domestic policy

The year 1850 began with more favorable conditions. Habeas Corpus was restored in Ireland; thanks to free trade, revenues generated a surplus of 2 million pounds sterling, while the tax for the benefit of the poor was reduced by 400,000 pounds compared to the previous year.

In the discord between Russia and Austria, on the one hand, and Turkey, on the other, caused by the case of the Hungarian fugitives, England took the side of the Porte. In January 1850, an English squadron unexpectedly appeared in sight of Athens demanding payment of old bills, among which in the foreground was the reward of the Portuguese Jew Pacifico, who was an English citizen, for damage to his house during popular unrest. The response to the refusal of the Greek government was the blockade of all Greek harbors. Greece could only protest against this abuse of force; Envoys of other states expressed their censure of England's mode of action in more or less energetic terms. A month later the blockade was lifted; its consequence was a cooling of relations towards France and Russia. Lord Stanley invited the Upper House to censure the government for its conduct in Greece.

This proposal was accepted, but the lower house, at the suggestion of Roebuck, expressed formal approval of Palmerston's policy. However, the upper house vote was not without consequences. Palmerston realized the need to extricate himself from the isolated position in which he had placed England, and all the more diligently tried to get closer to the Great Powers on the Schleswig-Holstein question, resolved by the London protocols of July 4 and August 12, 1850.

The sudden death of Robert Peel was a sensitive blow for the ministry. At the same time, the Austrian General Haynau, who arrived in London, suffered a personal insult from the workers at the Barclay brewery, and since Palmerston was in no hurry to give satisfaction, this further aggravated mutual relations with Austria, whose policy in Germany, especially the desire to include all Austrian lands into the German Confederation, provoked decisive resistance from England.

The Roman Curia prepared great difficulties for the Whig ministry. The papal breve of September 30 immediately appointed nine Catholic bishops for Great Britain; Cardinal Wiseman received the title of Archbishop of Westminister. This revived in the English clergy and people the deep-rooted hatred and aversion to Rome; the old “No Popery” click sounded again. At the beginning of 1851, Rossel introduced a bill on ecclesiastical titles, which prohibited the assumption of the episcopal title by all clergy who did not belong to the state church, and declared invalid all donations made in favor of such persons. To liberals and even to some Peelites, this bill seemed too harsh, and in the eyes of zealous Protestants it was still too timid.

Meanwhile, the lower house, despite the protest of the ministry, accepted Lock King's proposal to grant English and Welsh counties the same voting rights as cities. A ministerial crisis ensued, ending with the restoration of the previous cabinet, since Lord Stanley, the leader of the protectionists, failed to form a strong cabinet and attract people like Gladstone to it.

Politics took a back seat for a time thanks to the first World's Fair, which opened in London on May 1, 1851. A new source of weakness for the Ministry was the conduct of Lord Palmerston. True, he ensured that the Hungarian fugitives settled in Turkey, including Kossuth, were released; but the outcome of the struggle over Pacifico was a heavy defeat for him. The mediation commission elected on this issue recognized Pacifico's right to a reward of no more than 150 pounds sterling - and because of such a sum, the minister almost caused a European war.

Then a diplomatic break with Naples occurred as a result of Gladstone's letters about the cruelties of the Neapolitan government being sent to English envoys on the continent.

The coup d'etat, which took place in France on December 2, was joyfully welcomed by Palmerston, without the knowledge of the ministry and the crown. Rossel took advantage of this to get rid of his inconvenient comrade. Palmerston repaid him by introducing an amendment to one of the government proposals, the adoption of which caused the resignation of the ministry. This time, Lord Stanley (who received the title of Earl of Derby after the death of his father) managed to form a ministry (in February 1852). In the new cabinet, strictly Tory, he himself took the place of First Lord of the Treasury, Disraeli received the portfolio of finance, and foreign affairs passed to the Earl of Malmesbury.

The protectionist sympathies of the ministry led to the resumption of free trade agitation. The Cobden League has reopened; Rallies were held throughout the country and preparations were made for new elections. The government was in the lower house in an undoubted minority and owed its existence solely to disagreements among the liberal parties. In view of all this, Disraeli spoke in favor of continuing the customs policy of his predecessors.

The long-awaited dissolution of parliament followed in July, and new elections were immediately called. The ministry acquired a few extra votes, but not enough to have a majority in parliament. A considerable loss for him was the death of Wellington (September 14), who enjoyed a pacifying influence on the parties. Disraeli's financial proposals were rejected by a majority of 19 votes, and the Tory ministry was forced to resign (December 1852).

The cabinet that replaced him was made up of various parties who entered into an alliance with each other to overthrow Derby. The Peelites had their representatives in it in the person of Lord Aberdeen (First Minister) and Gladstone, who received the portfolio of finance, the Whigs in the person of Lord John Rossel, and the radicals in the person of Molesworth and Baines. Palmerston received the Ministry of the Interior.

Crimean War

Events in India were no less favorable. Since the capture of Delhi by the British, the center of gravity of the uprising shifted to Oudh and its capital Lucknow. In March 1858, the main quarters of Lucnow were taken by storm. In vain did the leaders of the insurgents seek help in Nepal, the only Indian state that still retained signs of independence: the ruler of Nepal entered into an alliance with the British.

Lord Stanley, the talented son of the Earl of Derby, successfully carried out the plan for the reorganization of India. The dominance of the East India Company ended, the board of directors was abolished, and in its place the position of a special minister responsible to parliament was created with a board of 15 members.

Shortly before this, the ministry suffered a severe defeat on the question of the Jews. When the bill for the admission of Jews into Parliament was rejected for the third time by the peers at the insistence of Lord Derby, the opposition, indignant at such disrespect for the resolutions of the lower house, proposed to the house a simple resolution to recognize Baron Rothschild as representative of the City of London. Lord Derby had to yield. He introduced a new bill of oath into the upper house, which made it possible for the admission of Jews. This bill was passed by the Lords, after which Rothschild took his place in the House of Commons.

In the same 1858, Lord Elgin concluded an agreement with Japan, which brought enormous trade advantages to England.

In England itself, reformist agitation assumed impressive proportions in 1859; Shortly before the opening of parliament, Bright came up with a reform project of a purely democratic nature. The ministry decided to introduce its own bill in order to calm public opinion with some concessions. The Whigs entered into an agreement with the Radicals to reject this bill, which did not meet with approval among the Tories. On the 21st March Lord John Rossel moved the House to declare that the Reform Bill was not suited to the needs of the country; this proposal was adopted by a majority of 39 votes. Following this, the dissolution of parliament was announced.

This step caused great excitement in the country, especially since the foreign policy of the ministry threatened new dangerous complications. At the first signs of a clash between Austria and France in the Italian affair, although the government assumed the guise of complete impartiality, from its statements one could understand that it was leaning more towards the side of Austria, while sincere sympathy for the cause of Italian freedom prevailed among the people. Mediation offered by Lord Malmesbury was rejected by Napoleon III.

The extensive naval armaments announced by the government, the strengthening of the Mediterranean fleet, Lord Derby's statement that England might find herself forced to occupy Trieste, the call for the formation of volunteer detachments, even the declaration of neutrality, interpreted in a sense favorable to Austria, all this maintained public distrust of the intentions. ministers and influenced new elections. The fear of being drawn into a war to maintain European absolutism prompted the radicals to forget their dislike of Lord Palmerston.

Lord Rossel was reconciled with his long-time enemy; a coalition was formed of all liberal factions with the aim of overthrowing the Conservative ministry, to which the new House of Commons expressed its distrust (June 1859). The Tories have fallen. Palmerston took over as First Minister, Rossel became Foreign Minister, and the remaining portfolios were distributed to Whigs, Peelites and Radicals. The ministers included Gladstone and Milner-Jibson. There was no more talk of sabotage into the Adriatic Sea to defend Trieste; in alliance with Russia, an attempt was made to divert the Prussian court from intervention in favor of Austria.

All other interests were relegated to the background due to the North American crisis that broke out in early 1861. If the seemingly inevitable collapse of the proud republic aroused a certain sense of schadenfreude in the British aristocracy, then the influence of the internecine war on cotton production, which fed a significant part of the working population of England, inspired serious fears. Gladstone's budget indicated continued improvement in finances. Revenues promised a surplus of almost 2 million, which is why the Chancellor of the Exchequer proposed not only the abolition of the paper tax, but also a reduction in income tax. In order to deprive the lords of the opportunity to reject the first of these measures a second time, the financial proposals of the ministry were submitted to the upper house not separately, but together with the budget, and although the lords protested against this, they, on the advice of Lord Derby, did not bring matters to a collision with the House of Commons.

The treaty between England, France and Spain, by virtue of which the demands made by these three powers on the Mexican government were to be supported by military force if necessary, indicated the intention of the Allies to take advantage of the critical situation of the alliance to intervene in American affairs.

Thanks to an unexpected incident, matters suddenly became so acute that one could fear a decisive break. The English mail steamer Trent, on which the commissioners of the southern states of Mason and Slidel were traveling, was detained by an American military corvette under the command of Captain Wilkes, who arrested the commissioners and took them to New York. The news of this caused great indignation in England. The British envoy in Washington, Lord Lyons, immediately received orders to demand the extradition of the prisoners and satisfaction for the insult inflicted on the British flag. The government of President Lincoln understood that, under these conditions, a break with England could have the most fatal consequences for the union. It condemned the action of its officer and released the prisoners. The peaceful outcome of the clash was partly Prince Albert's business. This was the last service he rendered to his second fatherland. He died on December 14, 1861, sincerely mourned by the British nation.

The joint intervention undertaken by England, France and Spain in Mexican affairs had a completely unexpected outcome. Spain and England were not slow to realize that the plans of the French emperor went much further than the original goal of the expedition. First English and then Spanish troops left Mexico. This step could not help but touch the heart of the French emperor, but he hid his displeasure because he needed further assistance from England for his transatlantic plans.

On October 30, 1862, Minister Drouin de Luis sent an invitation to the London and St. Petersburg courts to take measures to end the internecine war in America, transparently hinting at the possibility of armed intervention. But the St. Petersburg court decisively rejected the French invitation, and Lord Rossel followed his example.

The revolution in Greece, which cost King Otto the throne (October 1862), produced a new turn in England's eastern policy. In order to prevent the election of the Prince of Leuchtenberg, the nephew of the Russian emperor, as king, it was decided to make a territorial sacrifice to Greece. The Greeks were given to understand that if they made a choice pleasing to the British cabinet, the latter intended to agree to the annexation of the Ionian Islands to the Greek kingdom.

The bombing of a London prison to free Fenian prisoners again brought the Irish question to the fore. Realizing the impossibility of resolving it through persecution alone, Gladstone, at the very beginning of the 1868 session, introduced three famous resolutions into Parliament, which stated the need to destroy the Irish state church. They were adopted by a majority of 65 votes. The ministry, headed by Disraeli due to Derby's illness, decided to remain in office and appeal to the people. On July 31, the last parliament elected under the 1832 law dissolved.

By this time, the war with Abyssinia, caused by the refusal to release British prisoners, had ended successfully.

New elections gave a Liberal majority of 118 votes. Disraeli resigned; the drafting of the ministry was entrusted to Gladstone (December 1868). In addition to members of the former Liberal cabinet, the ministry included John Bright and Adulamite Low, who managed to make peace with the Liberals.

The 1869 session opened with the release of a significant number of Fenians and the announcement of the impending restoration of Habeas corpus in Ireland. On March 1, Gladstone introduced his Irish Church Bill into the Lower House. He proposed to immediately stop the payment of allowances to Irish priests and to transfer all church property into the hands of a royal commission, which would undertake the payment of lifetime income to the owners of ecclesiastical places. Irish bishops were to lose their seats in the upper house, Irish ecclesiastical courts were to cease their activities. Of the 16.5 million value of the property of the Irish Church, it retained the right to only 6.5 million, while the remaining 10 million were to be used partly for general useful purposes, partly for benefits to Catholics and Presbyterians. The Lower House adopted this bill with a majority of 361 votes to 247. Although the House of Lords approved it in the third reading, it did so with many amendments. Since these amendments were rejected by the lower house, and the Lords did not yield, fears arose at one time that the reform would not take place; but the conflict was removed by a compromise between the Earl of Granville and Lord Cairns, the leader of the opposition.

After the resolution of the Irish church question, another reform, which was in connection with the Irish unrest, should have come next - namely, a change in land relations in Ireland. This constituted the main task of the 1870 session. Already on February 15, Gladstone introduced his Irish Bill into the lower house. It was supposed to recognize farmers at the end of the lease period as having the right to compensation for all improvements and buildings they had made; to make it easier for farmers, through benefits from the state treasury, to purchase land property, and for farmers to cultivate infertile lands; finally, establish arbitration courts to resolve all disputes and misunderstandings between farmers and landowners. The bill passed both houses and became law on August 1. In addition, both houses approved the new law on public education proposed by Forster (initially for England and Wallis). The whole country was supposed to be divided into school districts and then found out how the existing schools in each district corresponded to the true needs of the population. Those districts in which the condition of the schools turned out to be satisfactory were to remain in the same position, while in the rest it was planned to open a corresponding number of new schools. The following three basic rules were established for these new schools:

1) compliance of teaching with the program approved by parliament,
2) supervision of government inspectors regardless of religious differences,
3) complete freedom of conscience, due to which none of the students can be forced, against the will of the parents, to participate in religious teaching.

The acceptance or non-acceptance of these rules is left to the good will of the school authorities, but only if they are accepted does the school become entitled to benefits from Parliament.

The English commissioners were greeted in London with noisy rejoicings, as messengers of an “honorable peace.” peace with honor). Lord Hartington's motion to vote a censure on the ministry's Eastern policy was rejected by 388 votes to 195. Important legislative measures were out of the question during the session of 1878 in view of the predominant importance foreign policy. The Home Ruler Party resumed its obstructive tactics on various occasions, but refrained from repeating scenes like last year. An important event in history was the break between its moderate and revolutionary elements over the debate about the murder of a large landowner, the Earl of Leitrim.

Late Victorian period

Soon after the closure of parliament, news arrived of the Russian movement towards the Amu Darya and the arrival of the Russian embassy in Kabul. This was Russia's response to sending Indian troops to Malta. For his part, Lord Beaconsfield decided to abandon the policy of non-intervention in Afghanistan that his predecessors adhered to. When the Afghan emir Shir Ali did not agree to the presence of British residents in Kandahar and Herat, the Anglo-Indian army entered Afghanistan and quickly occupied the Peiwar Pass, thus removing one of the main obstacles to Kabul.

At the beginning of 1879, Shir Ali fled Kabul and soon died. His successor, Yakub Khan, made peace with England.

In Ireland the general excitement was maintained by huge rallies. Parnell proposed a system of public ostracism against anyone who dared to lease lands from which the previous tenants had been expelled, or who in any way acted contrary to the land league. A whole series of violence was committed against court officials, land agents, farmers who remained faithful to the contracts, and in general against all persons who for some reason were unpleasant to the league. All this aroused all the greater fears because the culprits were not found and the police were powerless.

The government increased the number of troops and brought 14 leading members of the Land League, including Parnell, to trial on charges of sedition. The extent to which the Irish people took to heart the means of social ostracism recommended by Parnell was shown by the story of Captain Boycott, a farmer and land agent in Mayo, after whom this whole system, which took on the character of real terror, received the name of boycott. Soon in Ireland, except Ulster, there was not a single corner left where the league did not have its own branches and secret courts, the members of which had at their disposal the terrible weapon of boycott. In the case of the Land League members, the jury could not reach an agreement, and the trial remained without result. At the beginning of 1881, a bill was proposed to parliament to suppress anarchy in Ireland and a land bill tending to transform agrarian relations. Home Rulers declared their firm intention to slow down the first of these bills at all costs. The debate dragged on for 42 hours straight. Finally the bill passed its first reading; but already on the same day, regarding the proposal for a second reading, the home rules resumed their obstructive tactics.

The need for changes in the charter of the chamber itself became absolutely clear. Gladstone's proposal in this regard caused new stormy scenes. It was adopted, but the Irish deputies still managed to delay the approval of the bill for as many as 12 meetings. Then came the turn of the Land Bill. It contained the following main regulations: restriction of the landowner’s right to refuse the farmer further maintenance of the lease; providing farmers with the cost of all improvements they have made on the leased plot; review of excessively high rents by special assessment offices, the determinations of which should be equally binding on both landowners and farmers; increase in lease terms; finally, the issuance of loans for the improvement or purchase of rented estates, for the raising of empty lands, as well as for the resettlement of the hopelessly impoverished. Despite many amendments, the bill remained unchanged in its essential points; but after being examined by the Lords he returned to the lower house unrecognized. The Ministry expressed its readiness to make concessions, but rejected all amendments that violated main goal bill. The lords stood their ground. Gladstone made several more concessions, and finally the bill received royal assent (August 1881).

In April of the same year, Lord Beaconsfield died, who was succeeded as leader of the Conservative Party in the upper house by Lord Salisbury. A Boer uprising broke out in the Transvaal. Through the Orange Republic, negotiations were opened, which ended in peace, which was based on the recognition of the sovereign rights of the Queen and self-government of the Boers.

The government calmly looked at the occupation of Tunisia by France, but in advance declared its protest against the expansion of French influence in Tripoli.

Efforts to renew the Anglo-French trade agreement concluded by Cobden in 1860, in which Charles Dilck took an outstanding part from the English side, were defeated by the resistance of French protectionists.

The Irish Land League was closed by the government; assessment presences for rent review opened their activities, reviving hopes for a better future. But already in the first days of 1882, a new ferment of hostile elements was discovered. Fenian secret societies tried to occupy the gap left by the destruction of the land league; they were supported by cash benefits and emissaries from America.

At the beginning of the 1882 session there was a clash between Gladstone and the Upper House. The latter decided to elect a special commission to examine the results of the Irish Land Bill. In Gladstone's opinion, such a commission, appointed by landowners and in the interests of landowners, could only have a harmful effect on the work of pacification begun in Ireland. He therefore proposed that the censure be voted on by the upper house, which was adopted by a majority of 303 votes to 235.

The Lords nevertheless elected a commission, but without the assistance of the government, it remained stillborn. The Tories themselves found it necessary to meet the demands of the Land League and made a proposal to assist farmers in purchasing their leased plots with benefits from the treasury, while at the same time demanding stricter measures against secret societies. The conciliatory mood was disturbed by the news of the murder of the new Secretary of State for Ireland, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and his comrade Bork in Phoenix Park, Dublin (May 6). This murder was the work of secret societies who did not want to hear about the agreement. Already on May 11, Garcourt introduced into the lower house a crime prevention bill, which, in addition to other measures to protect public safety, included permission to conduct house searches day and night, the appointment of emergency courts, the right to ban newspapers and public gatherings. The bill was passed by both houses. Following this, Gladstone passed another law aimed at helping the poorest Irish tenants.

In the sphere of foreign policy, Egyptian affairs were of main interest. Back in the fall of 1881, a military party was formed in Egypt under the leadership of Arabi Pasha, which openly became hostile to foreigners. In this regard, on June 11, 1882, there was an indignation of the mob in Alexandria, and the British consul was wounded. On June 15, Gladstone formulated in parliament his Egyptian policy in 3 main points: joint action with France, respect for the sovereign rights of the Porte and the establishment of a lasting order in Egypt in the interests of Europe and with the approval of the great powers. The European Conference that met in Constantinople (June 23) acted in the same spirit. But the slowness of the Porte, the reluctance of France to intervene armed, and the increasingly provocative manner of Arabi's actions soon forced England to a more energetic course of action. On July 6, the English government sent Arabi Pasha a demand to suspend the fortress work he had begun in Alexandria, and since Arabi ignored this demand, on July 11 the British fleet under the command of Admiral Seymour opened fire on the Alexandrian forts.

On July 13, Arabi left the city, which was set on fire by the mob. Having occupied Alexandria, the British turned their forces against Arabi. The most outstanding English commander, Wolseley, was sent to Egypt, and on August 13 he won a brilliant victory over Arabi Pasha at Tel el-Kebir. The latter surrendered and was taken to the island of Ceylon.

By the end of the session, Gladstone's proposed changes to the parliamentary statutes were adopted. The most important of them was the so-called. closure rule closure), by which the speaker was given the right, with the consent of the majority, to declare the debate over and the establishment of the so-called large committees (eng. grand committees) for the preliminary development of special issues that have hitherto been discussed in the full sitting of the House. These two regulations largely limit the possibility of abuse of freedom of speech. There have been important changes in the composition of the ministry. Bright retired immediately after the bombing of Alexandria. Gladstone ceded the portfolio of finance to Childers, reserving only the post of First Minister, and new members joined the cabinet: Lord Derby, who openly went over to the liberal camp, and Charles Dilke, who belonged to the radical wing of the party.

In the 1883 session the ministry still had a majority in the House of Commons. A bill against the manufacture and sale of explosives passed both houses on the same day. Thanks to large committees elected on the basis of the new parliamentary statute, the chamber with unusual speed adopted laws introduced by the ministry on insolvency, on abuses in parliamentary elections and on protecting the rights of inventors. In the same way, a law was passed, although not without strong resistance, to improve the living conditions of English and Scottish farmers.

In Ireland things continued as before. How far the network of Fenian conspiracies spread was demonstrated by the murder of Carey, one of the crown witnesses in the trial against the murderers in Phoenix Park; he was killed on a British steamer just as he was about to land on the African shore.

In Egypt, matters became more complicated due to unrest that broke out in Sudan. Back in 1882, a national-religious movement arose there, headed by the Mahdi (prophet) Mohammed-Ahmed. On November 1, 1883, he utterly defeated the Egyptian army, commanded by British officers, and a few days later another detachment suffered a brutal defeat at Suakim. The outburst of indignation that gripped the entire nation forced Gladstone to agree to send General Gordon to the Sudan as Governor-General. Gordon immediately hurried to his destination, but was poorly supplied with troops and money. The Egyptian army under the command of the Englishman Baker was completely defeated (February 11, 1884) by Osman Digma at El-Teb, and Gordon himself was forced to lock himself in Khartoum, without provisions and with a garrison overcrowded with traitors. The whole nation demanded that the brave general not be abandoned to the mercy of fate, and the ministry decided to send General Wolsley to his rescue. But before the vanguard of the new army reached Khartoum, the city surrendered to starvation and Gordon was killed (January 26, 1885). Wolseley was ordered to retreat. By the end of May, all British military forces had returned to Upper Egypt.

If, despite the dismal outcome of Egyptian affairs, the House rejected the Tories' proposed censure of the ministry, this is explained by the fact that, through a number of reforms in the field of domestic policy, Gladstone was able to acquire reliable supporters among the radicals. Among these reforms, the first place was occupied by a new electoral law, which eliminated the difference between rural and urban voters and granted suffrage in the counties to every tenant of an apartment; In addition, the right to vote was granted to servants with a qualification of 10 pounds. In this way, 2 million new voters were created. The lower house passed this bill on June 26, 1884, but the upper house decided not to proceed to the second reading until the ministry introduced its bill on the distribution of electoral districts. Gladstone did not agree to this demand.

Under pressure from the press, the lords yielded; the electoral bill was adopted by them. Soon after this, the other half of the reform was carried out: many small towns were deprived of the right to have their own special deputy, the number of representatives from large cities was increased, the counties were divided into electoral districts of approximately equal population. Gladstone's weak successes in the field of foreign policy, and on the other hand, his courtesy to the radicals and Irish autonomists, had long caused an estrangement between him and the moderate Whigs. This led to the fact that when on June 3, 1885, regarding the budget, Gix Beach introduced a resolution expressing no confidence in the government, the latter was defeated and resigned.

The creation of a new cabinet was entrusted to the head of the Tories, the Marquis of Salisbury. He himself took over the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Northcote, who at this time passed with the title of Lord Iddesley into the upper house, became president of the privy council, Gix Beach received control of finance, and Lord Churchill received the Ministry of Indian Affairs.

The new cabinet pursued its foreign policy quite happily: relations with Germany, shaken by the latter’s successes in Africa, improved, disagreement with Russia over the Afghan borders was settled, General Prendergast occupied Burma, and already on January 1, 1886, the Viceroy of India proclaimed the annexation of Burma to British Empire.

Meanwhile, at the beginning of December 1885, parliamentary elections took place on the basis of the new electoral law, giving the liberals a significant number of votes thanks to the assistance of rural voters who wished to express their gratitude to Gladstone and his friends for the political rights granted to them. In total, 333 Liberals, 251 Tories and 86 Irish autonomists were elected. In Parliament, the Irish united with Gladstone's friends, and already on January 26, 1886, the Salisbury cabinet was defeated over the address. The Tories resigned.

Since moderate Whigs, like Lord Hartington and Goshen, stood aside, the cabinet was composed mainly of Gladstone's friends and radicals - Lord Rosbury, Childers, Morley, Chamberlain. Gladstone immediately introduced two bills to pacify Ireland in the lower house. One of them intended, with the help of a redemption operation, to convert large land property, which was exclusively in the hands of the British, into free peasant ownership, and the other - to grant Ireland a native government and a special people's parliament. The new Irish parliament was to consist of ²/3 elected members and 1/3 members appointed by the English government. All matters relating to Ireland were to be subject to his jurisdiction, with the exception of foreign policy, customs and military matters; in return, Irish members would lose their seats in the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

There was a violent opposition in the country against this last bill; Not only all the conservatives, but also the moderate Whigs, led by Lord Hartington, took up arms against him; even many radicals spoke out against the law, the consequence of which would be such a far-reaching separation between Ireland and England. Chamberlain left the office with his friend Trevelyan. The Irish Autonomy Act was rejected in the Lower House (June 7) by a majority of 341 to 311. Gladstone appealed to the country, but after an unusually excited electoral struggle, the people spoke out, in July 1886, against the ministry. In addition to 86 Irish autonomists, only 191 Gladstone supporters got into the new parliament, while the Tories received 317 seats and the liberal unionists 76.

Since Hartington refused to join the cabinet, Salisbury formed a purely Tory ministry, which included, among other things, Lord Iddesley, Gicks Beach, Lord Churchill and Cranbrook. Ireland responded to the overthrow of Gladstone's ministry with new agrarian crimes and street riots. Dillon and O'Brien, leaders of the national league that was formed in place of the former land league, recruited supporters everywhere for their “plan for a new campaign.” By this plan it was proposed to appoint trustees from the league to fix the rents of every private estate in Ireland; If the landlords do not accept the assessments made by these trustees, then the tenants must stop paying rent altogether. Irish MPs tried to challenge the government in the lower house, but Parnell's amendment to the address was rejected along with his Land Bill, which would have reduced rents by 50%.

At the end of 1886 and at the beginning of 1887, some changes took place in the ministry. First of all, Lord Churchill unexpectedly resigned. His place was offered to the leader of the Liberal Unionists, Lord Hartington, who himself refused to accept the position, but persuaded his friend Goshen to join the ministry as Chancellor of the Exchequer. This marked the beginning of a rapprochement with the moderate Whigs. Then Lord Iddesley and Geeks Beach left the ministry; the latter's place was taken by Balfour, Salisbury's nephew.

The unrest in Ireland forced the government, at the end of March 1887, to introduce a draft of a new pacification law. Despite strong opposition from Gladstone's supporters and Irish MPs, the ministry's proposal received a majority and came into force in June 1887.

In August 1887, the Irish National League was closed as a dangerous society, and its branches were dissolved; the consequence of this was new disturbances.

In April, the Imperial Conference opened in London. Imperial conference) of all British colonies with the aim of more closely linking the ties between the colonies and the mother country.

In the field of foreign policy, disagreement arose with France over the New Hebrides Islands, which was soon settled; There were misunderstandings with Russia on issues of the Afghan borders and Bulgarian affairs. When, after a long interregnum, the Bulgarians elected Ferdinand of Coburg as prince, the St. Petersburg cabinet turned to the Porte with a demand to recognize the illegality of this election. But England, supported by Austria and Italy, refused to accede to this demand, and the meeting of Queen Victoria with Emperor Franz Joseph in April 1888, apparently, did not remain without influence on the fact that Austria and England took a hostile position in the Bulgarian question Russia.

In Ireland, despite special laws and emergency courts, agrarian unrest did not stop. The statement of the Roman Curia (1888), which in harsh terms condemned the boycott system, caused great irritation in the country. The Irish replied that they did not intend to borrow their policy from either Italy or England, and flatly refused to stop the measures of violence condemned by the Pope. In August, Parliament discussed a proposal to set a trial for Parnell, accused by the Times newspaper of being an accomplice to the murderers of Cavendish and Borke. Parnell, without waiting for the decision of the commission appointed by Parliament, began legal action against the Times for libel; Pigot, who delivered letters compromising Parnell to The Times, confessed to the forgery and committed suicide (February 1889).

Parnell's trial with the Times made a deep impression in the country. The series of private elections that followed showed that the Tory cabinet was increasingly losing ground. New trial of Parnell, convicted of illegal cohabitation with married woman(whom, however, he later married), alienated Gladstone’s supporters from him and created a split within the Irish autonomists themselves, who demanded that Parnell temporarily renounce leadership of the party and parliamentary activities in general. The most important internal measure that marked the reign of the Conservative ministry in recent years was the transformation of local government on more democratic principles.

This new law came into force on April 1, 1889. In the same year, a special Ministry of Agriculture was established. In 1890, £33 million was allocated to assist Irish tenants in purchasing their leased estates; in 1891 a new bill was passed to the same end, allowing tenants who were forcibly removed for non-payment of rent to sell their tenancy to others within a period of five years. The Conservative majority in the House of Commons, although reduced (through separate elections favorable to the Liberals), is still strong enough to prevent the adoption of radical reforms, such as free primary education, rejected (February 1890) by a majority of 223 votes to 163. Budgetary the surplus, however, is used to develop public education and improve the position of public teachers. The queen's request to allocate special sums for the maintenance of her grandchildren (the son and daughter of the Prince of Wales) met with opposition from the leaders of the radical party, Labouchere and Morley. The House of Commons agreed only to a slight increase in the funds allocated to the Queen personally (August 1889).

In both 1889 and 1890 there were major workers' strikes in London and other large cities in England.

English troops took part in the defeat of the Dervishes who invaded Egypt from the south.

Disagreements arose between the USA and Great Britain over freedom of navigation in the Bering Sea, and between France and England over fishing off the coast of Newfoundland (1890). England recognized the rights of France to Madagascar, France - the rights of England to Zanzibar (established under the Zanzibar Treaty of 1890 with Germany).

1899 - the beginning of the Anglo-Boer War.

Fight for Africa

Long-standing misunderstandings between England and Germany on the issue of the South African possessions of both powers were put to an end by the treaty of July 1, 1890, according to which Germany made great concessions to England in Africa, but received the island of Heligoland from England.

In Africa, there were reasons for strife between Portugal and England, which at one time threatened war.

In 1891, Parnell, who failed to return to his former role as leader of the Irish autonomists.

Victorian morality

The values professed by the middle class and supported by both the Anglican Church and the opinion of the bourgeois elite of society began to prevail in society. Middle-class values and energy underpinned all the achievements of the Victorian era.

Sobriety, punctuality, hard work, frugality and thrift were valued even before Victoria's reign, but it was in her era that these qualities became the dominant norm. The queen herself set an example: her life, completely subordinate to duty and family, was strikingly different from the life of her two predecessors. Most of the aristocracy followed suit, abandoning the flashy lifestyle of the previous generation. The skilled part of the working class did the same Lewis Carroll You can Middle Ages Wikipedia

(1837-1901) - the period of the reign of Victoria, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India.
A distinctive feature of this era is the absence of significant wars (with the exception of the Crimean War), which allowed the country to develop intensively - in particular in the field of infrastructure development and railway construction.

In the field of economics during this period continued industrial revolution and the development of capitalism. The social image of the era is characterized by a strict moral code (gentlemanship), which reinforced conservative values and class differences. In the field of foreign policy, Britain's colonial expansion in Asia (the "Great Game") and Africa (the "Scramble for Africa") continued.

Historical overview of the era

Victoria succeeded to the throne on the death of her uncle, the childless William IV, on June 20, 1837. The Whig cabinet of Lord Melbourne, which the queen found upon her accession, relied in the lower house on a mixed majority, only partly consisting of old Whigs. It also included radicals who sought to expand suffrage and short-term parliaments, as well as the Irish party led by O’Connell. The opponents of the ministry, the Tories, were animated by a firm determination to oppose any further triumph of the democratic principle. New elections, called as a result of the change in monarch, strengthened the Conservative Party. The large cities of England, Scotland and Ireland voted predominantly in favor of the liberal and radical factions, but the English counties for the most part elected opponents of the ministry.

Foreign and domestic policy

In the spring of 1839, the British successfully fought with Afghanistan, which from that time became a kind of advanced cover for their East Indian possessions and the subject of jealous guardianship on the part of England.
In May of the same year, a ministerial crisis broke out, the immediate cause of which was the affairs of the island of Jamaica. Disagreements between the mother country, which had abolished black slavery in 1834, and the interests of planters on the island, threatened to lead to the same rift as in Canada. The ministry proposed suspending the local constitution for several years. This was opposed by both Tories and Radicals, and the ministry's proposal was accepted by a majority of only 5 votes. It resigned, but again took charge of affairs when the attempts of Wellington and Peel to form a new cabinet ended in failure - among other things, due to the fact that Peel demanded that the Queen's ladies of state and ladies-in-waiting, who belonged to the Whig families, be replaced by others from the camp Tory, but the queen did not want to agree to this (in English constitutional history this question is known as the “Bedchamber question”). The parliamentary session of 1840 was opened with a solemn announcement of the upcoming marriage of Queen Victoria to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha; The wedding took place on February 10.

On July 15, 1840, representatives of England, Russia, Austria and Prussia entered into an agreement aimed at putting an end to the discord between the Porte and the Egyptian Pasha. Mehmed-Ali rejected the decision of the conference, counting on the help of France, offended by the exclusion from participation in such an important matter; but this calculation did not come true. An English squadron, reinforced by Turkish and Austrian military forces, landed in Syria in September and put an end to Egyptian rule there.
The triumph of foreign policy did not in the least strengthen the position of the ministry; this came to light during the parliamentary session that opened in January 1841. The government suffered one defeat after another. Already in 1838, under the leadership of Richard Cobden, the so-called Anti-Corn Law League was formed in Manchester, which set itself the task of abolishing the existing protective system and, mainly, duties on imported grain. Met with fury by the aristocracy and landowners, who derived enormous benefits from the high tariff, the League demanded the free import of all foodstuffs as the only means of raising the fallen state revenues, improving the condition of the working classes and facilitating competition with other states. Partly under the pressure of financial difficulties, partly in the hope of finding support among opponents of the grain duty, the ministry announced its intention to begin revising the grain laws. Following this, on the question of the sugar tax, it was defeated by a majority of 317 votes to 281. The Ministry dissolved Parliament (June 23).

The Conservative Party, superbly organized and led by Peel, was victorious, and when the ministerial draft address was rejected by a strong majority in the new Parliament, the ministers resigned. On September 1, 1841, a new cabinet was formed. It was headed by Peel, and the main members were the Dukes of Wellington and Buckingham, Lords Lyndhurst, Stanley, Aberdeen and Sir James Graham. And earlier, on the issue of the emancipation of Catholics, Peel, who showed some sensitivity to the demands of the time, in February 1842 spoke in the lower house with a proposal to lower the import duty on bread (from 35 shillings to 20) and adopt the principle of gradually lowering tariff rates. All the counter-projects of the unconditional supporters of free trade and protectionists were rejected, and Peel's proposal was accepted, as well as other financial measures aimed at covering the deficit (introduction income tax, reduction of indirect taxes, etc.). At this time, the Chartists began to stir again and submitted to Parliament a petition with a gigantic number of signatures, outlining their demands. They found strong support in the discontent of the factory workers, fueled by the trade crisis, the lull in industrial activity and the high prices of subsistence supplies. Disagreement with the North American States over borders was settled by a convention on August 9, 1842. The tensions with France caused by the 1840 treaty were still ongoing; its echo was the refusal of the French government to sign the convention concluded by the great powers on the destruction of the slave trade and on the right to search suspicious ships (English droit de visite).

Old disputes with China over the opium trade led back to 1840 to open war. In 1842, this war took a favorable turn for the British. They climbed up the Yantsekiang to Nanjing and dictated peace to the Chinese. Hong Kong Island was ceded to the British; 4 new harbors were opened for trade relations.
In Afghanistan, the rapid success of 1839 blinded the British; they considered themselves masters of the country and were taken by surprise by the Afghan uprising that suddenly broke out in November 1841. Trusting the insidious enemy, the British negotiated a free exit from the country, but on the return trip to India they suffered terrible losses from the climate, deprivation and fanaticism of the inhabitants. The Viceroy, Lord Ellenborough, decided to take revenge on the Afghans and in the summer of 1842 sent new troops against them. The Afghans were defeated, their cities were destroyed, and the surviving English prisoners were freed. The devastating nature of the campaign drew sharp condemnation from the opposition in the House of Commons. The year 1843 passed anxiously.

The Catholic trend of some of the Anglican clergy (see Puseyism) grew more and more. In Scotland there was a break between the established church and the Presbyterian strain of nonintrusionists. The main difficulties faced the government in Ireland. From the moment he took office in the Tory ministry, Daniel O'Connell renewed his agitation for the dissolution of the union between Ireland and England (English Repeal). He now gathered gatherings of 100,000 people; an armed conflict could be expected. Criminal prosecution was brought against O'Connell and many of his supporters. The trial was delayed several times, but the agitator was eventually found guilty. The House of Lords cassed the verdict due to formal violations of the law; the government abandoned further persecution, but the agitation no longer reached its previous strength.

In the session of 1844, the issue of the Corn Laws again came to the fore. Cobden's proposal for the complete abolition of the Corn Duty was rejected by the Lower House by a majority of 234 to 133; but already during the discussion of the Factory Bill, when the famous philanthropist Lord Ashley (later Earl of Shaftesbury) managed to pass a proposal to reduce the working day to 10 hours, it became clear that the government no longer had the previous strong majority.
The most important financial measure in 1844 was Peel's Banking Bill, which gave the English bank a new organization.
That same year an important change took place in the highest administration of the East Indies. In December 1843, Lord Ellenborough launched a victorious campaign against the Gwalior district in Northern Hindustan (Sindh had been conquered even earlier, in 1843). But it was precisely this belligerent policy of the Viceroy, in connection with unrest and bribery in the civil administration, that caused the intervention of the directorate of the East India Company. Taking advantage of the right granted to her by law, she replaced Lord Ellenborough and appointed Lord Harding in his place. In 1845, the internal disintegration of the previous parties was completed.

Everything Peel accomplished in this year's session was achieved with the help of his former political opponents. He proposed to increase the funds for the maintenance of the Catholic seminary at Maynooth, which, being the only public institution of its kind in Ireland, presented a deplorable contrast with the luxurious furnishings of the schools of the Church of England. This proposal aroused the strongest opposition on the ministerial benches, which brought into relief the whole heartlessness of Old Tory and Anglican orthodoxy. When the bill was admitted to its second reading on April 18, the previous ministerial majority no longer existed. Peel gained the support of 163 Whigs and Radicals. Church agitation received new food when the ministers came up with a proposal to establish three highest secular colleges for Catholics, without the right of state or church intervention in religious teaching.
Because of this measure, Gladstone, then still a strict churchman, left the office; when it was introduced into Parliament, Anglican high-churchmen, Catholic fanatics and O'Connell alike burst out with curses against the godless project. Nevertheless, the bill was passed by an overwhelming majority. This changed position of the parties was even more pronounced in economic issues. The results of the last financial year were favorable and showed a significant increase in income taxes. Peel petitioned for the continuation of this tax for another three years, suggesting, at the same time, allowing a new reduction in customs duties and the complete abolition of export duties. His proposals aroused the displeasure of the Tories and landowners, but met with warm support in the former opposition and were adopted with its help.

Meanwhile, a terrible famine suddenly broke out in Ireland due to a poor potato harvest, which was almost the only food for the poorest classes of the population. People were dying and tens of thousands sought salvation in emigration. Thanks to this, the agitation against the Corn Laws reached its highest degree of tension. The leaders of the old Whigs openly and irrevocably joined the movement, which until then had been in the hands of Cobden and his party. On December 10, the ministry resigned; but Lord John Rossel, who was entrusted with the task of forming a new cabinet, encountered no less difficulties than Peel, and returned his powers to the queen.
Peel reorganized the cabinet, which Gladstone re-entered. Following this, Peel proposed a gradual abolition of the Corn Laws. Part of the old Tory party followed Peel into the free trade camp, but the main body of the Tories launched a furious agitation against their former leader. On March 28, 1846, the second reading of the Corn Bill was passed by a majority of 88 votes; all changes, partly proposed by the protectionists, partly tending to the immediate abolition of all grain duties, were rejected. The bill also passed through the upper house thanks to Wellington's influence.

Despite, however, this success and the enormous popularity acquired by Peel by carrying out his great economic reform, his personal situation became increasingly difficult. In the struggle against the poisonous attacks of the protectionists - especially Disraeli, who, together with Bentinck, assumed leadership of the old Tories, Peel, of course, could not count on the protection of his long-time opponents. The immediate cause of his downfall was the issue of emergency measures in relation to Ireland, which was resolved negatively by a coalition of Whigs, radicals and Irish deputies. Foreign affairs at the time of the removal of the Tory ministry were in a very favorable position. The former strained relations with France little by little gave way to a friendly rapprochement. WITH North America There were disagreements due to mutual claims to the Oregon region, but they were peacefully settled.
In June 1846, the Sikhs raided British possessions in India but were defeated.

On July 3, 1846, a new Whig ministry was formed under the leadership of Lord John Rossel; its most influential member was the Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston. It could count on a majority only if it had support from Peel. Parliament opened in January 1847 and approved a number of measures to help Ireland's woes. About the same time O'Connell died, on his way to Rome, and in him the national party of Ireland lost its main support.
The issue of Spanish marriages led to a chill between the London and Paris cabinets. Taking advantage of this, the Eastern powers decided to annex Krakow to Austria, ignoring the belated protests of the British Foreign Minister.
In the general elections of 1847, the protectionists remained in the minority; the Pilites constituted an influential middle party; the united Whigs, Liberals and Radicals formed a majority of 30 votes. The Chartists found a representative in the talented lawyer O'Connor. Inside the country, the situation was bleak. The proliferation of crimes in Ireland required a special repressive law. In the English factory districts, poverty and unemployment also assumed appalling proportions; bankruptcies followed one after another. The shortfall in government revenues due to general stagnation in business and the impossibility of cutting expenses forced the ministry to propose legislation to increase income taxes by another 2 percent. But the increase in this unpopular tax caused such a storm in parliament and outside it that at the end of February 1848 the proposed measure was withdrawn.

Victorian architecture(English: Victorian architecture) is the most general term used in English-speaking countries to designate the whole variety of varieties of eclectic retrospectivism common in the Victorian era (from 1837 to 1901). The dominant movement of this period in the British Empire was Gothic Revival; entire neighborhoods in this style have been preserved in almost all former British colonies. British India is also characterized by the Indo-Saracenic style (a free combination of neo-Gothic with national elements).

In the field of architecture, the Victorian era was marked by the general spread of eclectic retrospectivism, especially neo-Gothic. In English-speaking countries, the term “Eclecticism” is used to denote the period of eclecticism. victorian architecture».

Victorian art and literature

Typical writers of the Victorian era are Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray, Anthony Trollope, the Brontë sisters, Conan Doyle and Rudyard Kipling; poets - Alfred Tennyson, Robert Browning and Matthew Arnold, artists - the Pre-Raphaelites.
British children's literature is formed and reaches its heyday with a characteristic departure from direct didactics towards nonsense and “bad advice”: Lewis Carroll, Edward Lear, William Rands.

The Victorian era is not very easy to describe, if only because Queen Victoria's reign was incredibly long. Styles and trends in literature and art changed, but the fundamental worldview remained.
We have already said that the old, stable world was disintegrating before people's eyes. Green hills and valleys were built up with factories, and the development of science called into question the very origin and essence of man: is he really the image of God, or a descendant of strange creatures that crawled out of the primeval mud a million years ago? Therefore, throughout the entire era, through all art, there runs the desire of people to somehow hide from reality or recreate it themselves. (Turner and Constable do this: in their paintings they seem to recreate light and color). Some try to escape modernity by hiding in the Middle Ages, like the Pre-Raphaelites, Morris and Pugin.

Others are trying to contrast the collapsing world with simple, reliable middle-class values: family, children, home, honest work. Queen Victoria herself sets an example. In her youth, Victoria was very beautiful, and the stereotype that arises when you mention her - the image of an overweight old woman in eternal mourning - is her later years. Victoria was an exemplary wife, remaining faithful to her beloved husband even after his death (hence the lifelong mourning), perpetuating his memory in monuments such as the Albert Hall. They were perfect family, true to middle class values. It was Prince Albert who introduced the Christmas tree and the custom of giving gifts to children at Christmas into English use, and gradually this desire was found in cruel world warmth and joy turns into syrupy sentimentality so characteristic of Victorianism - or, conversely, moralizing. In this sense, Charles Dickens seems to be the Victorian of the Victorians, with his innocent angelic children and the inevitable punishment of vice.
At this time, revolutionary changes were taking place in the country. Industrialization affected more and more areas of life. Mass production appears (the same porcelain dogs, lithographs and postcards), the phonograph, photography. The level of education is also growing: if in 1837 in England 43% of the population was illiterate, then in 1894 - only 3%. The number of periodicals has increased 60 times (among others, fashion magazines such as Harpers Bazar are appearing), a network of libraries and theaters has emerged.

Perhaps it was mass production that was the reason that when we use the term “Victorian”, especially in relation to design and interiors, we most often think of a room with lush, heavy furniture, where it is impossible to turn around due to the numerous tables, armchairs, ottomans, shelves with figurines, where the walls are completely covered with paintings and photographs. This eclecticism was not a single style; This was for the most part a middle-class house, and most of these interiors date from the period commonly called High Victorian (1850s - 70s).

Moreover, even in furniture, the Victorians expressed their strict morals: where did such long tablecloths come from, where did the covers for the chairs come from? But the fact is that you can’t even show your legs on a chair or table, it’s indecent. "Decency" is one of the fundamental values of that era. Everyday costume was quite strict and restrained (however, at a ball or reception you could still show off the beauty of your dress and jewelry). But even when going to a ball, it was not customary to use cosmetics - it was indecent, only weaker women wore makeup. A monument to the Victorian concept of decency will forever remain the bathing cabin, which allowed ladies to bathe away from the eyes of men. They changed clothes in these cabins - their bathing suits were not much different from ordinary ones! - and then the cabins were taken out to sea so that they could enter and exit the water without witnesses.

Around this time, people begin to realize that children are not miniature adults, but completely special creatures. Education is another one of the words that runs like a red thread through the era. Childhood stands out as a separate period of human life, and combines all the incompatible features of Victorianism: on the one hand, children are innocence, purity, Christmas gifts; on the other hand, children need to be raised in strictness so that they learn the moral norms of society, and accustom them to hard work and good behavior.

The Victorian era is full of contradictions. This is a time of extreme optimism and extreme pessimism, a time of strict moral rules and a time when prostitution flourished in London, a time of triumph of empire and the time of Jack the Ripper. All this must be remembered when we talk about art, because all this was most directly reflected in it.

The Victorian era gave rise to a movement for women's emancipation, but the emphasis was still on jewelry and accessories. Men's fashion tended to be more formal, and new methods of making clothes spread quickly.
The 19th century—the century of the bourgeoisie and technological progress—had a radical impact on fashion. Thanks to the mass industrial production of clothing and the development of means of communication, fashion is becoming the property of ever wider segments of society. The accelerated pace of life and the development of civilization leads to a rapid change in fashion trends.
Despite the fact that women are gradually winning back their rights from men, fashion in the 19th century is still chaste and bashful in a bourgeois way. The female silhouette is now entirely determined by clothing. There is less and less exposed body, although it is by no means forbidden to emphasize certain “places” with clothing.

The Victorian age can be divided into three periods:
- early Victorian (1837-1860)
- Middle Victorian (1860-1885)
- late Victorian (1885-1901)

The early Victorian period is also called the "romantic" period. This is the queen's youth, marked by ease and a certain freedom of character, as well as an ardent love for Prince Albert. The Queen adored jewelry, and her lady subjects, imitating her, adorned themselves with lovely enamel trinkets, cabochons and corals.
Wide-brimmed hats decorated with feathers and flowers, fashionable at the beginning of the century, were replaced by practical caps, which influenced the female silhouette as a whole.
In the 20s of the 19th century, the figure of a woman resembles hourglass: rounded “puffed up” sleeves, wasp waist, wide skirt. The neckline of the dress almost completely exposes the shoulders. A very open neck allows you to “highlight” the head, and complex hairstyles, usually raised, are in fashion.

Although the skirts are wide, their length has been shortened: first the shoes were revealed, and then the ankles. This was quite revolutionary, because a woman’s legs for a long time (almost the entire European history"AD") remained securely hidden from prying eyes.
Women's fashion of that time was complemented by long gloves, which were removed in public only at the dinner table. An umbrella has long become a mandatory fashion attribute for women. There was not as much coquetry in this as it might seem at first glance. The umbrella had a rather pragmatic purpose - it protected a woman’s skin from the sun. Until the 1920s, tanning was considered indecent, “country”; pale “alabaster” skin, so in keeping with the period of romanticism, was in fashion.

Also, by 1820, the corset returned to the attire of fashionistas, which would disappear from clothing only a century later. The waist, which in Empire times was located almost under the chest, again takes its natural position, but it requires an unnatural volume - about 55 cm! The desire to achieve the “ideal” waist often leads to tragic consequences. So, in 1859, one 23-year-old fashionista died after a ball due to the fact that three ribs compressed by a corset pierced her liver.

The already long corset (starting under the chest, it covered the buttocks by a quarter, tightening them) by 1845 had lengthened so much that a classic V-silhouette emerged, complemented by wide sleeves. As a result, women of fashion could hardly move their arms, and their ability to move was seriously limited. Helplessness and dependence on a man made the ladies of the Victorian era even more attractive in the eyes of their gentlemen. The color scheme became more muted, in contrast to the diversity of fabrics inherent in the beginning of the century, small details came to the fore, which made it possible to radically change appearance. Usually these were wide belts with buckles. Women's modesty was emphasized by white scarves around the neck, as well as white armbands - “engageantes”. After almost many years of absence, exquisite cashmere shawls have returned to fashion. However, this time they were much wider and almost completely covered the woman's shoulders. The overskirt gradually lost its former round shape, becoming much wider and taking on the shape of a bell. By 1850, the word “crinoline” came into fashion, meaning a woman’s outer skirt. The wider the crinoline, the better. It was quite problematic to wear it, so soon this accessory had to be abandoned.

Curls were the fashionable hairstyle at that time. Placed around the head, down to the shoulders, pinned into a knot or gathered at the back of the head.

Women's suit, model 1833.

Fashionable lady in the park

The Middle Victorian period was marked by a tragic event - the death of Prince Consort Albert. Victoria, who passionately loved her husband, plunged into the abyss of grief and mourning. She constantly grieved and mourned her deceased husband and dressed only in black all the time. She was followed by the entire royal court, and then, in general, by the whole society. However, the ladies concluded that they look extremely attractive in black and managed to benefit from the general grief.

Women's clothing of the middle Victorian period was one of the most uncomfortable costumes: rigid corsets, long heavy skirts with numerous folds, high collars that rise to the throat. Men's clothing was much more comfortable.
However, even when England was struggling to reform women's clothing, female travelers stubbornly continued to wear corsets and hats and took great care to maintain a proper feminine appearance, no matter how difficult it was. Moreover, according to them, only this clothing was the only suitable and appropriate for a woman in unusual conditions.

The 60s of the 19th century became a turning point in the history of the development of world fashion, turning it into a real industry. Such significant changes occurred largely due to the invention of the sewing machine, as well as the advent of artificial dyes. At the same time, one of the main directions of development of modern fashion - haute couture - arose and took institutional form. From now on fashion trends ceased to be some kind of frozen and slowly changing form, turning into something much more dynamic and creative.

The famous dome-shaped crinoline skirt has sunk into oblivion, replaced by a much more elegant elongated shape. However, the very concept of “crinoline” lingered in fashion for quite a long time thanks to the extraordinary popularity of the creator of haute couture, Charles Worth. Worth himself considered the crinoline to be a rather bulky and unattractive structure, but since his name was firmly associated with this accessory, he continued to experiment with the form, creating an increasingly sophisticated image. As a result, after a few years, the overskirt rose significantly and was gathered into elegant pleats just below the waist.

By 1867, crinoline had finally disappeared from the fashion horizon and was replaced by bustles. Experiments with overskirts and petticoats literally captured almost all layers of English society. As a result, by 1878 the ladies very vaguely resembled their predecessors of the early Victorian period. A thin, graceful silhouette with a long train finally defeated massive forms. From now on, designers began to pay special attention to the figures of customers, giving the latter the desired grace, which meant further improvement of the craftsmanship of the couturier, who often had to turn the ugly duckling into a real princess.

Speaking of crinoline. The crinoline acquired its true meaning only from 1850. It was then that it took the form of a gathered, domed skirt, the shape of which was supported by numerous petticoats. Until 1856, six more petticoats were worn under the overskirt, mostly self made, very complex. Making them was difficult and took an infinite amount of time. This was due to the fact that improved sewing machines began to be used in Parisian salons, at best, around 1850. These machines were introduced everywhere only in 1857. Since 1859, artificial crinolines were introduced, where elastic steel hoops - a technically modernized memory of the former rifrock with its hoops - supported the lighter modern material as if by springs. This change affected not only the external outline of the dress, but also changed the very nature of the clothing. The skirt took on a new, unexpected movement. The former petticoats disappeared, and faux crinoline became a machine-made product. As soon as the skirt expanded to a crinoline, the sleeves of the bodice, which in the 40s were already tightly fitting the arm, narrowed, and the bodice itself began to be complemented by a wide frill at the collar, called “berte”.
Small hats decorated with feathers and fascinators came back into fashion; Ladies preferred modest hairstyles - a bun or curls tied on the sides in French braids. Particularly relaxed ladies also experienced the first model haircuts, but they have not yet become widespread.

Lady and Gentleman 1850

Dresses with bustles 1869

Slim dress 1889

Lady in an Amazon cut dress

Late Victorian period.

Industrialization is progressing across the planet by leaps and bounds: the telephone and telegraph have already been invented, experiments are being carried out with computers, the Kodak camera has appeared, the luxurious World Exhibition has died down. Life has become dynamic and hasty, which is reflected in fashion trends. It was at this time that the famous “bloomers” were invented - wide trousers similar to the clothes of harem slaves, skirts became narrower, and the silhouette began to take on the shape that is familiar to us today. The bustle and crinoline, although worn everywhere, are gradually going out of fashion, giving way to practical formal dresses (most often from the atelier), Amazon cut suits and mermaid skirts (narrow top and fluffy bottom). Women are starting to cut their hair; Curls and bangs are in fashion.
But all this concerns mainly wealthy women, representatives of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie. For ladies from the lower classes, clothing remains unchanged - a closed dark dress with a closed collar of the most simple cut, a hard bustle made of cheap materials, mercilessly rubbing the skin even through undershirts, rough (“goat”) shoes or low-heeled shoes.

It is characteristic that men's clothing with early XIX V. almost unchanged. Only the details and materials changed, but not the cut. After 1875, the type of men's clothing that we know now was established - trousers, a vest and a jacket, all made of the same material - solid English fabrics.
The tuxedo is coming into fashion. Initially it was worn in smoking salons, and then when visiting theaters and restaurants. Tuxedos were worn predominantly by young people. The cuffs were starched so that one could write on them.
In the 1860s, the famous bowler hat was invented, initially intended to be worn by footmen and clerks, but then quickly ascended to the very top. upper layers society. Whatever you say, the compact and solid headdress with narrow brims was much more comfortable than the usual cylinder. However, it has also undergone changes - some models of cylinders have become foldable.

The Victorian era spanned most of the 19th century. Dramatic changes have occurred in almost every area of life. It was a time of prosperity, widespread imperialist expansion and great political reforms. At the same time, virtue and restrictions taken to the point of absurdity contrasted with the widespread prevalence of prostitution and child labor.

Life was not easy for ordinary Englishmen. (pinterest.com)

So many people were crammed into the huts of the poor that there was no talk of any hygiene or sanitary standards. Often, large numbers of men and women living together in a small area led to very early prostitution.

Life of hard workers. (pinterest.com)

In the home of a middle-class man, the main place was the living room. It was the largest, most expensively decorated and presentable room. Of course, after all, the family was judged by it.

Classic interior a decent home. (pinterest.com)

Slum life. (pinterest.com)

The generations of Hanoverians preceding Victoria led a very dissolute lifestyle: illegitimate children, alcoholism, debauchery. The prestige of the British monarchy was low. The Queen had to rectify the situation. Although they say that she collected images of male nudes.

Fashion victims. (pinterest.com)

Family portrait. (pinterest.com)

Victorian era fashion. (pinterest.com)

Men and women were forced to forget that they had a body. Courtship consisted of ritual conversations and symbolic gestures. Words about the body and feelings were replaced by euphemisms (for example, limbs instead of arms and legs). Girls were not supposed to know anything about sex and childbirth. The middle class believed that prosperity was the reward of virtue. The puritanism of family life taken to the extreme gave rise to feelings of guilt and hypocrisy.

English family in India, 1880. (pinterest.com)

Flower sellers. (pinterest.com)

It must be said that the harsh rules did not apply to ordinary people. Peasants, workers, small traders, sailors and soldiers lived in unsanitary conditions, poverty and overcrowding. To require them to adhere to Victorian morality would be simply ridiculous.

Life of the poor. (pinterest.com)

The clothing was elaborate and elegant. For each case, a specific style was provided. The main characters of a woman's wardrobe were the crinoline and the corset. And if only wealthy ladies could afford the first, then the second was worn by women of all classes.

Fashionistas. (pinterest.com)

In the bathroom. (pinterest.com)

Victorian fashion. (pinterest.com)

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