Post-war settlement of Europe. Consequences of the war. Post-war peace settlement
Post-war peace settlement in Europe.
Consequences of World War II
World War II was the hardest and bloodiest war in human history. During the war, at least 60 million people, including about 27 million citizens Soviet Union . Tens of millions of people were injured and became disabled. The war devastated entire countries, reduced cities and villages to ruins, and turned millions of people into refugees. In Europe alone, the number of so-called displaced persons forced to leave their place of residence has exceeded 11 million people. The loss of life in the Second World War was almost six times greater than in the First World War, and the damage to property was 12 times greater. Of the 4.5 million Soviet troops captured by Germany, only 1.8 million returned home. In specially created German death camps, the Nazis destroyed more than 11 million people, including 6 million Jews.
As a result of the Second World War, the balance of power on the world stage changed dramatically. Germany, Italy, Japan which before the war were among the great powers, having been defeated, temporarily became dependent countries occupied by foreign troops. Their economy was destroyed by the war, and for a number of years they could not compete with their former competitors. France was defeated by Germany in 1940 and occupied for four years - from 1940 to 1944 Nazi troops, temporarily lost its position as a great power. Great Britain successfully ended the war as one of the three victorious great powers, but its position was weakened. Economically and militarily, it lagged far behind the United States and was dependent on American aid. Only United States of America came out of the war much stronger. Without conducting military operations on their territory, avoiding military destruction and major human losses, they were far ahead of all other countries economically and militarily. Only the United States had atomic weapons; their fleet and aviation were the strongest in the world, their volume industrial production was greater than in all other countries combined. The USA has become a giant “superpower”, the leader of the capitalist world, claiming world hegemony.
The second “superpower” was the Soviet Union. Having won victory, despite colossal casualties and destruction, having made a decisive contribution to the defeat Hitler's Germany, The Soviet Union increased its power, influence and prestige to an unprecedented degree. By the end of the war, the Soviet Union had the world's largest land army and enormous industrial potential, surpassing that of any other country except the United States. The armed forces of the USSR were located in many countries of Central and Eastern Europe, V East Germany, in North Korea, the Soviet Union controlled the situation in the People's Democracy countries and enjoyed their full support, as well as the support of North Korea and China - the most populous country in the world.
Occupation regimes of Germany, Austria and Japan.
At the Yalta and Potsdam conferences, the USSR, USA and Great Britain agreed that After the surrender, Germany will be subjected to a long occupation. The goals of the occupation were disarmament, demilitarization and denazification of Germany, including complete 
the abolition of its armed forces, the destruction of the fascist party and all other fascist organizations, preparation for the reconstruction of the German political life on a democratic basis.
The territory of Germany was divided into four zones of occupation: Soviet - in the east, English - in the northwest, French - in the west and American - in the southwest. The German capital Berlin, located on the territory of the Soviet zone, was also divided into four sectors of occupation: Soviet English, French and American Supreme power in Germany was temporarily exercised by the commanders-in-chief of the Allied forces, each in his own zone of occupation. The coordination of the actions of the four powers on all issues affecting Germany was carried out by the Control Council, consisting of the commanders of the occupation forces General management Berlin entrusted it to the four-party inter-allied commandant's office. The Control Council and the inter-allied commandant's office acted on the principle of unanimity.
Since Austria in 1938-1945. was part of Germany, it was also occupied. Like Germany Austria was divided into four occupation zones: Soviet, English, American and French. Supreme power in Austria was temporarily exercised by the Allied Council, consisting of representatives of the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France. In October 1945, elections were held in Austria and a government was formed, but the occupation regime remained in place because the Soviet Union refused to conclude a peace treaty with Austria until a peace treaty with Germany was signed.
In Japan, unlike Germany and Austria, there was no different zones occupation. The occupation of the territory of the Japanese Islands, as well as the territory of the Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands in the Pacific Ocean, which were under Japanese rule before the Second World War, was carried out only by American troops. Created by agreement between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain, the Allied Council and the Far Eastern Commission for Japan, consisting of representatives of the USA, USSR, China and Great Britain, did not have real power and could only give non-binding recommendations to the commander-in-chief of the American occupation forces. In fact, the American occupation authorities solely controlled all activities of the Japanese government.
At the conference in Yalta it was achieved dividing line agreement 
between Soviet and Anglo-American troops operating in Europe. It ran from north to south from the Baltic Sea through Germany and Austria, along the Yugoslav border with Italy all the way to the Adriatic Sea. Territories east of this line, with the exception of Greece, were liberated Soviet troops, to the west of it - Anglo-American. A similar dividing line was drawn in Korea. The zone of American occupation also included South Korea(up to the 38th parallel), while North Korea (where the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was subsequently formed) was occupied by Soviet troops
UN education
An important event in the international life of the first post-war years was the creation United Nations (UN), whose main task was to maintain international peace and security, develop cooperation between peoples and states.
According to a preliminary agreement between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain, reached at the conference of the heads of the three great powers in Yalta, the Founding Conference of the UN opened in April 1945 in San Francisco (USA). States that declared war on Germany and other countries were invited to it. fascist bloc. The conference adopted the UN Charter, which established the most important principles international law development of friendly relations between nations on the basis of equality and self-determination of peoples, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states, resolution of international disputes by peaceful means, refraining from the threat of using force. The Charter stated that international cooperation must be carried out in the spirit of “respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion.”
According to the Charter, the governing bodies of the UN are General Assembly And Security Council. General Assembly, i.e. a meeting of all members of the UN, where each country has one vote, meets periodically in sessions that consider general principles international cooperation and problems related to the maintenance of international peace and security. The decisions of the General Assembly are not binding, but advisory in nature, but have high international authority. The Security Council, which has primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security, makes decisions that are binding on UN members. The Security Council consists of permanent and non-permanent members. The five great powers are permanent members: USSR, USA, UK, China, France. The non-permanent members, which initially consisted of six countries, are elected by the General Assembly for a term of two years. Decisions of the Security Council are valid only if there is unanimity of all its permanent members.
The UN has an Economic and Social Council. Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice and the Secretariat headed by Secretary General elected by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a period of 5 years with the right to re-election for another term. In addition, there are a number of international specialized organizations at the UN, including the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), which has gained great authority. The day of entry into force of the UN Charter - October 24, 1945 - is celebrated annually as UN Day.
In 1945, 51 states participating in the conference in San Francisco became members of the UN. Countries of the fascist bloc - Germany, Japan. Italy and their allies were initially not allowed into the UN. Then the number of UN members increased significantly and by the end of the 50s reached 83. Gradually, the UN became the most authoritative international organization, playing a major role in maintaining peace, preventing nuclear war, struggle against colonialism, protection of human rights
The trials involved the main war criminals.
In accordance with wartime agreements, the USSR, USA, England and France established the International Military Tribunal to try the main war criminals. Tribunal sessions opened November 20, 1945 in the city of Nuremberg, where the fascist party congresses used to take place. The 24 surviving main Nazi war criminals were put on trial, including Hitler's deputies Goering and Hess, Admiral Doenitz, who replaced Hitler as head of government, former Chancellor Papen, Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, the leaders of the military command Keitel and Jodl, and the banker Schacht. They were charged with conspiracy against peace by preparing and waging wars of aggression, war crimes and crimes against humanity, including, inter alia, the enslavement and mass extermination of civilians for political, racial or religious reasons.
On October 1, 1946, the tribunal sentenced 12 defendants to death by hanging, the rest to various terms of imprisonment. The Tribunal recognized the leadership of the Nazi Party, security and assault troops (SS, SD and Gestapo) as criminal organizations. Contrary to the dissenting opinion of a member of the tribunal from the USSR, the tribunal considered it possible not to apply death penalty to Hess, condemning him to life imprisonment, Schacht and Papen were acquitted, and did not recognize the government, the general staff and the high military command of Germany as criminal organizations.
The main Japanese war criminals were also put on trial by the International Military Tribunal, which was held in the capital of Japan Tokyo from May 3, 1946 to November 12, 1948 Charges of preparing and unleashing aggressive wars, violating international treaties, rules and customs of warfare (in particular, killing prisoners of war) were brought against 28 former Japanese leaders. Among them were 4 former prime minister, 11 ministers commanders of the army and navy, 7 accused, including former prime ministers Tojo and Hirota were hanged, the rest were sentenced to different terms imprisonment.
The Nuremberg and Tokyo trials of major war criminals were the first trials in history of the organizers of aggressive wars and other crimes against peace and humanity. Their verdicts condemning aggression, war crimes, and terror against civilians not only punished the main war criminals, but also became an important source of international law
- Make a plan for the story: the main economic, social, political consequences of the Second World War for the countries that were its main participants.
- What do the terms “Iron Curtain”, “Cold War”, the doctrine of “containment”, the Marshall Plan mean?
-
What was the essence of the Marshall Plan? Why did the USSR demand that Eastern European countries not take part in this plan?
- WITH leave the contents of fragments of two treaties (documents in the column on the right) - on the creation of the North Atlantic Alliance and the Warsaw Treaty. What common and different provisions can you note? What do the dates of these agreements indicate?
- Describe the UN. For what purpose was it created? What structure does it have?
Send a file with completed tasks and answers to questions to: [email protected]
With the end of the war, first place in foreign policy European countries occupied with issues of peaceful settlement, starting with defining borders and establishing relationships and ending with solving social and economic problems.
One of the important issues of the post-war settlement was the issue of creating an international organization1.
San Francisco Conference. Creation of the UN. Two weeks before the end of the war, a conference opened in San Francisco on April 25, 1945, at which issues of the security of nations in the post-war period were resolved. It created the United Nations and adopted its Charter.
Delegations from 50 countries, headed by foreign ministers, arrived to participate in the conference. Among the conference participants were representatives of the Ukrainian and Belarusian republics. This issue was resolved back in Crimea. Poland was not invited to San Francisco, since England and the United States did not recognize the government created during the fight against Nazi Germany. Due to the fact that another, emigrant, Polish government was located in London, a resolution was adopted that after the issue of the Polish government was resolved, this country would be given a seat in the UN.
The conference was opened by US President Henry Truman. As a result of heated discussions, the UN Charter was agreed upon, and on June 26, 1945, in the ceremonial
It was signed in a private atmosphere. It came into force on October 24 of the same 1945, and this day is considered the birthday of the United Nations. The Charter sets out the tasks new organization and methods for their implementation. It obliged UN members to “take effective collective measures” to prevent and eliminate threats to peace and suppress acts of aggression, and to resolve international disputes “by peaceful means, in accordance with the principles of justice and international law.”
It was first enshrined in the Charter as a fundamental principle international relations the principle of equality and self-determination of peoples. Article 2, paragraph 7, specifically states that the Charter “in no way authorizes the United Nations to interfere in matters essentially within the internal jurisdiction of any State” unless those “internal affairs” threaten other countries with aggression and war. According to the Charter, the purposes of the UN are to:
Take effective joint measures to maintain international peace and the fair resolution of international disputes;
Develop friendly relations between states based on respect for the principle of equality and self-determination of peoples;
To pursue international economic and cultural cooperation and to promote and develop respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion;
Serve as a focal point for concerted action among states to achieve these common goals.
The most important principles of the UN are the equality of all members of the organization, the conscientious fulfillment of their obligations, the resolution of controversial issues by peaceful means, refraining from the threat or use of force against any state and non-interference in the internal affairs of any state.
All peace-loving states that accept the obligations contained in its Charter and must, in the opinion of the organization, fulfill them, can become members of the United Nations.
The UN has six main organs: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat. Their powers, functions and activities make it possible to cover the entire range of issues within the competence of the international organization.
The main deliberative body of the UN is the General Assembly, in whose work representatives of all member countries of the organization participate. This is not a legislative body, but an international assembly of representatives
bodies of sovereign states. Each UN member has only one vote in the General Assembly. Decisions on the most important issues are made by a 2/3 majority of members present and voting, and on other issues by a simple majority. At each session of the General Assembly, its chairman and vice-chairman are elected. As a rule, issues on the agenda of the next session are discussed first in committees.
The main political body of the UN, which has primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security, is the Security Council, which consists of permanent members (USSR, USA, Great Britain, France and China) and non-permanent members elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms. The Council is chaired monthly by representatives of all its members in turn.
The UN Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly for a five-year term on the recommendation of the Security Council. To work on specific international problems, the UN has intergovernmental specialized institutions: the International Labor Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization, the Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, etc.
Despite the existing differences among the members of the delegations on a number of important issues, they managed to quickly agree and sign the Charter of the new international organization. This happened because people were tired of war, murder, deception and horror and gravitated towards peace and harmony.
The UN Charter, which emerged as a result of the agreement of many states, is intended to serve the noble goals of maintaining peace, the security of peoples and the development of normal, friendly relations between states. However, the UN itself and its Charter do not guarantee peace. To ensure peace, unity and coordinated actions of all members of the organization are necessary. A day after the signing of the UN Charter, on June 28, 1945, the English newspaper The Times wrote: “The hope of mankind for lasting peace rests not on the text of the Charter developed in San Francisco, but on a strong alliance, one and only one of the manifestations of which is this Charter."
Unfortunately, the activities of the UN have not always met the high goals for which this organization was created.
Post-war settlement. Potsdam Conference.
Each of the three countries that played a major role in the defeat of Nazi Germany - the USSR, the USA and England - saw a peaceful post-war settlement in its own way. The USSR hoped for a significant expansion of the Soviet alliance in Europe, and not only in Europe, with
building in the territories of European countries liberated Soviet army, buffer zone. The United States intended to reduce its presence in Europe and expand its influence on other regions of the world; in England, most of all they wanted to maintain balance in Europe and be able to influence the processes taking place in the region.
In June 1945, the Declaration of the USSR, USA, England and France “On the Defeat of Germany” was published. These countries took upon themselves all power in relation to Germany.
The political principles for dealing with Germany, developed by the Soviet side, were formulated in the draft declaration “On political regime in Germany”, prepared in July 1945. The main provisions of the declaration boiled down to two points:
It is impossible to identify the German people with the Hitler clique and pursue a policy of revenge, national humiliation and oppression towards them;
It is necessary to provide conditions for the development of Germany as a united, peace-loving state.
All the basic principles of the post-war settlement and resolution of the question of Germany were adopted at the Potsdam (Berlin) Conference of the Heads of Government of the USSR, USA and England. It took place from July 17 to August 2, 1945, with a two-day break during the parliamentary elections in England. The delegations were headed by: the Soviet - I.V. Stalin, the American - G. Truman, the English - W. Churchill, and his deputy was K. Attlee.
The Conservatives were defeated in the parliamentary elections in England. Labor, which collected 48.5% of the vote, won 389 seats in the House of Commons, which accounted for 62% of all mandates. As a result, K. Attlee, having become prime minister, returned to Potsdam as head of the British delegation on July 28.
Despite differences in approaches to resolving a number of issues of post-war settlement in Germany, the conference managed to reach agreement and sign agreements. The goals and objectives of the Control Council, which was the supreme authority on German territory, and the principles of relations with Germany in the political and economic fields were determined. The main directions in the implementation of these principles were demilitarization, denazification and democratization.
The victorious powers reached an agreement in Potsdam to eradicate German militarism. The complete disarmament and liquidation of all German industry, which could be used for the production of weapons, was envisaged. Militarist and Nazi propaganda was prohibited. All Nazi laws were repealed.
The USSR, USA, England and France established an occupation regime over Germany and created a single governing body - the Allied Control Council. The goals of the occupation of Germany were: complete disarmament and demilitarization; complete and final abolition of the land, sea and air forces, SS, SA, SO and Gestapo; all weapons, ammunition, weapons of war and specialized means for their production were transferred to the disposal of the allies or were subject to destruction.
Three countries said war criminals must be punished. It was decided to bring them to a “swift and fair trial” and to publish the first list of Nazi criminals by September 1, 1945. Later, peace treaties with countries that participated in the war on the side of Germany included provisions on the need for the detention and extradition of war criminals. To determine the specific guilt of those who unleashed the Second world war, the allied states - the USSR, the USA, England and France - created the International Military Tribunal. He began work in Nuremberg on November 20, 1945 and ended it on October 1, 1946 with the death sentence of 12 major war criminals: Goering, Ribbentrop, Keitel, Kaltenbrunner, Rosenberg, Frank, Frick, Streicher, Zukel, Jodl, Seyss-Inquart, Borman (in absentia); Hess, Funk, Raeder were sentenced to life imprisonment, Spreer and Schirach were sentenced to 20 years in prison; by the age of 15 - Neurath; by the age of 10 - Doenitz.
The USSR, USA and England set the amount of reparations to Germany.
The Soviet Union received as reparations industrial equipment from its occupation zone, as well as 25% of industrial capital equipment from the western zones. The USA, England and other countries carried out their reparation claims at the expense of the Western zones of occupation and German assets abroad. The Allies agreed that after satisfaction of reparation claims, as many resources should be left as Germany needed for its continued existence without outside help.
The German navy and merchant fleet were divided equally between the three powers. England insisted most German submarines were sunk.
As for territorial issues, the city of Königsberg with the adjacent region was transferred to the USSR (in July 1946 it was renamed Kaliningrad), the border between Poland and Germany was established along the line of the Oder and Western Neisse rivers, part East Prussia and the city of Danzig went to Poland.
The Allies decided to move part of the German population from Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary to Germany. At the same time, attention was paid to ensuring that the Control Council monitored his humane treatment.
The issue of concluding peace treaties with Italy, Finland, Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary was also resolved. To prepare these treaties, the Council of Foreign Ministers (CMFA) was established, which was also supposed to deal with the problem of the former Italian colonies.
In Potsdam, significant differences emerged between the allies on a number of issues, including the situation in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe, the former German territories ceded to Poland, etc.
The decisions taken at the Potsdam Conference were of key importance for the post-war peace settlement both in Europe and throughout the world, although the United States, England and France soon began a gradual retreat from the agreed line.
Defeat of Japan. On August 9, 1945, as stipulated by the Crimean Conference, the Soviet Union entered the war with Japan. The day before, on August 6, the Americans dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima, and on August 9 on the city of Nagasaki. This is how the world learned about the birth of a new weapon, dangerous not only for its enormous destructive power, but also for its radiation. The bombing of two Japanese cities was not caused by any military necessity. Japan could not avoid defeat, and the USSR’s entry into the war Far East accelerated the collapse of its militaristic regime. In his memoirs about the Second World War, W. Churchill admitted that the assumption “that the fate of Japan was decided by the atomic bomb” was erroneous. Its defeat, he wrote, “became certain before the first atomic bomb was dropped."
Application nuclear weapons in the war against Japan it had not a military, but a purely political significance. It was intended to show the whole world the strength of the United States, the only country, possessed of super-powerful weapons. The nuclear bombing of two cities three days before and on the day the USSR entered the war was then used to show the world that the United States had achieved victory over Japan and to downplay the role of the Soviet Union in it, which had defeated a million Kwantung Army within three weeks.
On September 2, 1945, the Act on unconditional surrender Japan. As a result of the victory over Japan, the Soviet Union returned South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands.
Thus, the two aggressive powers - Japan in the Far East and Germany along with their allies in Europe - suffered a complete collapse.
Treaties with defeated countries. To prepare peace treaties with the five defeated countries (Italy, Finland, Romania, Bulgaria and Hungary), the Council of Foreign Ministers,
established by decision of the Potsdam Conference to conduct preparatory work on a peaceful settlement, began on September 6, 1945. And immediately disagreements arose on a number of fundamental issues. The discussion of the texts of the peace treaties took place in difficult discussions and continued until December 1946. Soviet representatives sought to preserve the sovereignty of the defeated countries and not to deal a blow to the living standards of their people with economic clauses. At the same time, the USSR insisted that Nazism be eradicated in these countries, and that the military contingent reach only the number necessary to protect the borders and maintain internal order.
Soviet representatives opposed US attempts to limit the sovereignty of the five defeated countries. Thus, it was proposed for Italy to create a so-called treaty commission, which should have broad rights to monitor and ensure compliance with the terms of the peace treaty.
When preparing peace treaties, the issue of borders was important. The borders of European countries were determined at the conclusion of the armistices, and then approved by the Council of Foreign Ministers. Nevertheless, at the peace conference in Paris, the delegations of the United States and England supported Greece’s claims against Bulgaria and advocated a revision of the already decisions made about the borders of Finland with the USSR and Hungary with Romania.
Issues related to the border between Italy and Yugoslavia, including the fate of Trieste, caused heated debate. The United States, supported by other Western countries, tried to turn this Mediterranean port into its naval base when developing the status of Trieste. In the end, a compromise was reached, according to which Trieste and the surrounding territories received the status of a free territory. Trieste was transferred to UN control, and foreign troops were withdrawn from it. The decisions taken regarding Trieste were reflected in the peace treaty with Italy.
In subsequent years, disagreements between the USSR and the Western powers led to the fact that in 1954 the territory of Trieste was divided between Yugoslavia and Italy.
During the preparation and adoption of peace treaties with countries that fought on the side of Hitler's Germany, no less heated discussions took place on political issues. Yes, representatives Western countries opposed the inclusion in treaties with Italy of articles on the dissolution of all fascist organizations and the prohibition of Nazi parties. French representatives generally stated that they did not know the word “fascism”. However, the provision for the eradication of fascism was included in the peace treaties. Their final text was
democratic character and opened the way for free democratic development.
The economic clauses of the peace treaties also gave rise to controversy, which mainly concerned the resolution of reparations issues and the principle of equal opportunity. For example, in Italy, as well as in other countries, representatives of the USA, England and France tried to impose conditions that would impose an unbearable economic burden on their people, and the so-called equal opportunities would allow strong Western powers to easily penetrate the markets of these countries and influence their economy.
The Western powers, while seeking greater reparations for themselves, at the same time took vigorous action to cut reparations intended for the Soviet Union.
As an example, consider the issue of reparations from Italy. From the very beginning, the Soviet government proposed to determine reparations from Italy in the amount of 100 million dollars, which amounted to "/25 of the damage inflicted on the Soviet Union by the troops of this country. This amount, according to the general assessment of the world press, was symbolic. The USSR believed that Italy should partially compensate losses to other countries, including the USA and England, in the amount of "/5 to "/25 of the damage caused by it. The British Foreign Minister E. Bevin and the US Secretary of State Byrnes at the Council of Foreign Ministers session slowed down decision-making, demanding much reparations from Italy. Thus, England insisted on the amount of 2880 million pounds sterling, which exceeded the reparations of the USSR by 110 times, although Italian troops did not enter the territory of England. Clearly inflated claims on the part of the Western powers were also made against other countries that participated in the war on the side of Germany. It was possible to make an agreed decision at the Paris session of the Council of Foreign Ministers with great difficulty, and Soviet claims for reparations were ultimately satisfied.
The peace conference, which took place in Paris from July 29 to October 15, 1946, opposed attempts to disrupt a number of decisions taken by the sessions of the Council of Foreign Ministers. After discussing peace treaties there, they were submitted for consideration to the Council of Foreign Ministers session, held at the end of 1946 in New York. On February 10, 1947, peace treaties were signed in Paris with Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Finland. On September 15, 1947, after their ratification by the Soviet Union, the United States of America, Great Britain and France, they entered into force.
Peace treaties with five countries met the interests of the peoples of these countries and allowed them to develop along a democratic path. At the same time, it should be noted that there are different assessments of the work of the Council of Foreign Ministers and the Paris Peace Conference. The position of the Soviet Union was criticized in the West, for example, in the book “Ev”, published back in 1954 in the USA.
European Peace Treaties after World War II,” which was an appendix to a series of American foreign policy documents.
But no matter what different assessments are given, still joint solutions, adopted during the war years and after its end, including at the Potsdam Conference and at the sessions of the Council of Foreign Ministers, were a good basis for the peaceful development of European countries, and not only Europe. If they had been implemented by all the states that signed them, the world might have avoided many collisions, tensions, conflicts and military clashes.
The Potsdam Conference and the conclusion of five peace treaties were, perhaps, the last joint actions of members of the anti-Hitler coalition. In subsequent years, development took a completely different path. Our former allies soon began to break the ties that united the main participants in the war against aggressive countries. Counteraction began, in which the main focus was on the accumulation of atomic weapons.
Abstract on history
on the topic:
Post-war settlement and revolutionary events in Europe.
Completed:
Yanina A.O.
Checked:
Zalinyaev V.E.
Moscow 2003
The beginning of a peace settlement.
During the First World War, 8 million people died. The same number remained disabled for life. The end of the war did not bring the peoples of the world the long-awaited peace. For several more years, hotbeds of conflict arose in Europe and other parts of the world, revolutions and uprisings broke out. The end of the war did not mean the resolution of political conflicts. Weakened by a long war, Europe ceased to be the main center of world politics. Representatives of Western European powers did not come up with any peace initiatives - they were put forward by the United States of America and Soviet Russia.
Soon after the end of hostilities, the process of post-war settlement began. A peace conference was convened, in which the Entente countries and their allies participated. It opened on January 18, 1919. in the hall of mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, on the same day and in the same place where the creation of the German Empire was proclaimed in 1871 after the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War. This was another humiliation for the German delegation representing the defeated side. The conference was chaired by the ardent opponent of Germany, French Prime Minister J. Clemenceau. He and other representatives of the victorious powers - US President William Wilson, Prime Ministers of Great Britain D. Lloyd George and Italy in Orlando - resolved all the most important issues. However, Italy's military weakness, which emerged during the war, reduced its international authority. During the conference, representatives of the USA, Great Britain and France took little account of the interests of this country and made decisions in an even narrower circle.
America, which entered the war later than the other great powers, managed not only to maintain its military and economic potential, but also received huge profits from the war. Until 1917, when the United States joined the Entente, it successfully traded with all the warring parties and became the largest international creditor. Wanting to consolidate the foreign policy successes of his country, President William Wilson put forward a program for a peaceful settlement, which American diplomacy stubbornly defended during the peace negotiations. Such activity was in itself unusual, since the Americans had previously adhered to a policy of isolationism. It consisted in the desire to avoid participation in the affairs of the “old continent” - Europe. The United States distanced itself from the colonial policies of the European powers, from their coalitions and conflicts. This position made it possible for Americans to appear in the eyes of residents of many countries as supporters of freedom and opponents of colonialism. Thanks to all this, the American president was able to initiate a truce between Germany and its allies and the Entente.
The peace conference at Versailles boiled down mainly to the development of conditions by the victorious countries for concluding peace with Germany. The French insistently demanded that the defeated enemy be punished. The British also wanted to prevent the restoration of German military power. The European powers and Japan hoped to divide the colonies of defeated Germany. These plans did not find support from the American delegation, which believed that excessive weakening and humiliation of Germany could lead to new conflicts in Europe. The Americans also insisted on granting the colonies of European powers greater independence, considering them as potential markets for industrial products. The Americans proposed making a new international organization, the League of Nations, a tool for preserving peace, the charter of which, in their opinion, should have been included in the text of the peace treaty.
Conclusion of peace treaties.
Despite the contradictions that arose between the victors, they managed to agree on the text of the peace treaty. The German delegation did not participate in this work. She was informed of the contents of the document before its signing, which took place at Versailles on June 28, 1919. Harsh and humiliating conditions were imposed on the vanquished. According to the Treaty of Versailles, Germany returned Alsace and Lorraine to France; the coal-rich Saar region was transferred to the management of a League of Nations commission for a period of 15 years; the left bank of the Rhine River was occupied by Allied forces for 15 years; Germany transferred Poznan to the restored Poland, as well as certain areas of Pomerania, West and East Prussia (while the majority of western Polish lands remained with Germany); Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a “free city” and placed under the administration of the League of Nations. Germany was losing all its colonies. Until 1921 the Germans had to pay reparations- 20 billion marks in gold.
Following the Treaty of Versailles, treaties were signed with Germany's former allies - Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Turkey - which formed a system of international agreements. However, the world did not become fairer after their imprisonment. The weakening of Germany, which was responsible for starting the war, was a source of new conflicts.
The American Congress, the majority of which consisted of Wilson's opponents of isolationism, refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, which included the charter of the League of Nations. Therefore, the United States later signed a separate treaty with Germany.
Despite the fact that Russia actively participated in the war, it was not represented at the world conference. The Entente powers did not recognize the Bolshevik government, which concluded a separate peace treaty with Germany in Brest. At the same time, they supported anti-Soviet forces and recognized Admiral A.V. Kolchak, Supreme Ruler of Russia. The Entente also recognized national non-Bolshevik governments that arose on the territory of the former Russian Empire. This policy contributed to the expansion of civil war in Russia and the aggravation of international relations after the end of the First World War.
Revolutionary process in Europe
The consequence of the World War was the widespread dissemination of socialist ideas. Lots of people in different countries embarked on the path of struggle to change the state and social system. The world revolutionary movement, which began with the revolution in Russia, became the most important factor social processes in the 20th century. In March 1919, the Third Communist International (Comintern) was organized in Moscow. He was supposed to contribute to the implementation of the provisions in practice Marxist theory about the global character of the socialist revolution. The Bolsheviks who headed the Comintern coordinated the activities of communist parties created in different countries of the world.
In Western European countries, the position of the Social Democrats was still strong. They believed that workers could achieve their goals through democratic methods, without the use of revolutionary violence. The socialist social democratic parties recreated their international association - the Socialist International (Socialist International). Extremely hostile relations developed between them and the communists.
A striking example of the conflict between Social Democrats and Communists were the events in Germany. The revolution that broke out there in November 1918 was primarily caused by defeat in the war. The collapse of the economy, famine, and failures at the front led to an uprising of soldiers and workers. Emperor Wilhelm II abdicated the throne, and power was in the hands of the Social Democrats. The communists were dissatisfied with the moderate policies of the new government. They demanded the deepening of the revolution, its transformation into a socialist one, and the transfer of power to the Soviets. In January 1919, the communists launched an uprising in Berlin with the aim of overthrowing the government of the Social Democrat F. Ebert. The speech was suppressed, and the communist leaders K. Liebknecht and R. Luxemburg were killed. But the revolutionary movement in Germany did not fade away. In April 1919, the Bavarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed, which existed, however, for only a few weeks.
In the summer of 1919 in the city of Weimar, the Constituent Assembly adopted the German Constitution, which established a republican democratic system. It was supposed to stabilize the situation in the country. However, attempts by far-right and far-left forces to seize power did not stop.
Another country where a powerful revolutionary movement unfolded was Hungary. In October 1918, as a result of the collapse of Austria-Hungary, which was defeated in the war, it was proclaimed an independent state. A government aligned with the Entente came to power. In the spring of 1919, a political crisis broke out. The Entente powers demanded that Hungary sign a peace treaty, according to which the country's territory was significantly reduced. Under these conditions, the previous government resigned, and the new one was formed by the Social Democrats and Communists.
March 21, 1919 The formation of the Hungarian Soviet Republic was proclaimed. Social transformations began in the country, similar topics that took place in Soviet Russia: banks and industrial enterprises were nationalized, landowners’ lands were expropriated. The Red Army was created, which fought with the troops of the Entente and its allies - Romania and Czechoslovakia, who sought to force the Hungarian government to recognize the terms of the peace treaty. In August 1919, the Hungarian Soviet Republic fell. The nationalist dictatorship of Admiral M. Horthy was established in the country. Hungary signed a peace treaty on Entente terms.
A new revolutionary upsurge in Europe occurred in the 1920s. In October 1923, German communists, led by E. Thälmann, with the support of the Comintern, organized a workers' uprising in Hamburg. It was brutally suppressed. The communist action in Bulgaria in 1923 also ended in failure. The revolution that began in Russia never acquired a worldwide character.
In the post-war world, the national movement intensified. The era of empires in Europe and Asia ended, and new independent nation states arose from their ruins. Czechoslovakia, Poland, Austria, Hungary, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia appeared on the map of Europe. The South Slavic peoples - Serbs, Montenegrins, Croats, Macedonians, Bosniaks (Muslims), Slovenes - created their own kingdom, which in 1929 received the name Yugoslavia.
The process of the rise of the national movement also had a downside. It led to an increase in national intolerance and hostility. Peoples who created their own independent states often began to oppress national minorities. This happened, for example, with Ukrainians and Belarusians in Poland, with Hungarians in Romania, with Germans in Czechoslovakia.
Let's sum it up
The documents concluded during the post-war settlement process were drawn up in the interests of the Entente powers. The extremely difficult conditions of the peace signed by Germany and the victors’ disregard for Soviet Russia could have become the cause of new international conflicts. The war caused a powerful upsurge of the revolutionary movement. However, the world revolution that the Bolsheviks and their followers dreamed of in many countries. Didn't happen.
Literature used
1. Volobuev O.V., Klokov V.A. “Russia and the world” Textbook. For grades 10-11, Moscow, publishing house “New Textbook”, 2002.
Abstract on history on the topic: Post-war settlement and revolutionary events in Europe. Completed by: Yanina A.O. Checked by: Zalinyaev V.E. Moscow 2003 Beginning of a peaceful settlement. During the First1. What are the reasons for the collapse of the Anti-Hitler coalition?
1. Conflict of ideologies between the West and the USSR.
2. Determining the fate of countries liberated from fascism, resolving a number of territorial issues
3. Implantation of communism in liberated countries.
2. What were the main decisions on a peaceful settlement made at the international conferences of the three powers?
Tehran Conference - the right was assigned to the Soviet Union to annex part of East Prussia as an indemnity after the victory; on the question of the incorporation of the Baltic republics into the Soviet Union there should be a plebiscite at the appropriate time, but not under any form of international control; F. Roosevelt proposed dividing Germany into 5 states.
Crimea Conference - The conference adopted the Declaration of a Liberated Europe, in which the Allies stated that the purpose of their policy in Europe was the destruction of Nazism and fascism and to assist the peoples of Europe to create democratic institutions of their own choice. The conference also took the important decision to convene the Founding Conference of the United Nations on April 25, 1945 in San Francisco to create a world organization for the maintenance of international peace and security.
Potsdam Conference - political and economic principles were agreed upon that needed to be applied to Germany in the initial period (demilitarization, democratization, denazification, decartelization). In principle, the issues of reparations, of bringing the main war criminals to trial, of the eviction of Germans from Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary, of the former Italian colonies, etc., were resolved.
3. What contradictions between the former allies prevented the conclusion of peace treaties with Germany and Japan?
1. The creation of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic and the confrontation between the USA and the USSR delayed the conclusion of an agreement with Germany.
2. The conclusion of a peace treaty with Austria was also delayed. The reason was the confrontation between two superpowers. The USSR insisted that Austria maintain neutrality and undertake not to join military-political blocs. These demands, including the inadmissibility of the Anschluss, that is, the absorption of Austria by Germany, were included in the peace treaty and the Austrian constitution. In 1955, the conflict ended with the signing of a peace treaty.
3. The contradictions between the USSR and the USA on the issue of the post-war structure of Japan turned out to be very acute. The United States took the path of preparing a separate peace treaty without the participation of the USSR and a number of other interested countries, including the People's Republic of China, which was formed in October 1949. In September 1951, a conference was held in San Francisco to conclude a peace treaty with Japan. The conference organizers did not listen to the amendments and additions made by the USSR delegation and a number of other participants. The USSR sought clear formulations on issues of territorial settlement, the adoption of an article on the withdrawal of foreign troops from Japan, etc. However, the amendments and additions of the USSR and other participants in the conference were not taken into account. The USSR, Poland and Czechoslovakia refused to join the treaty. Thus, the question of a peace treaty between the Soviet Union and Japan remained unresolved.
4. What goals formed the basis of the United Nations? Which main principle distinguished it from the pre-war League of Nations?
The UN Charter sets out the goals of this organization: maintaining international peace and security, suppressing acts of aggression, resolving international disputes by peaceful means, developing friendly relations between nations, implementing international cooperation in resolving problems of an economic, social and humanitarian nature, promoting and developing respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction of gender, race, language or religion.
The UN was distinguished from the League of Nations by the principle of unanimity of the 5 permanent members when making decisions to suppress aggression and maintain peace.
5. Why was the new legal term “crimes against humanity” formulated at the Nuremberg trials of major war criminals?
The Charter of the International Military Tribunal was drawn up by representatives of the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition on August 8, 1945 in London. Article 6 of the Charter defined the crimes falling within the jurisdiction of the tribunal. These included: crimes against peace, war crimes and crimes against humanity, namely: murder, extermination, enslavement, exile and other atrocities committed against civilians before or during the war, or persecution on political, racial or religious grounds in in furtherance of or in connection with any crime within the jurisdiction of the Tribunal, whether or not in violation of the domestic law of the country where it was committed. Article 6 of the Charter of the International Military Tribunal.
Of the defendants at the Nuremberg trials, 16 people were found guilty of crimes against humanity: Bormann, Goering, Sauckel, Seyss-Inquart, Jodl, Kaltenbrunner, Keitel, Neurath, Ribbentrop, Rosenberg, Frank, Frick, Funk, von Schirach, Speer and Streicher.
War crimes and crimes against humanity have no statute of limitations.
This term was introduced due to the policy of the German authorities in the occupied territories and in relation to other nations.
"COLD WAR". MILITARY-POLITICAL BLOCKS
1. What are the main features of the Cold War?
Signs of the Cold War:
The split of the world into two systems
Superpower rivalry in all regions of the world (local conflicts)
Arms race (militarism in politics and thinking)
The threat of using nuclear weapons (peak – Cuban Missile Crisis)
Formation of military-political blocs (NATO 1946, OVD 1955)
2. What role did the creation of nuclear weapons play in international relations?
The creation of nuclear weapons strained relations between the USA and the USSR. The USSR began to create its own nuclear weapons. To a certain extent, the presence of nuclear weapons as weapons of mass destruction was a deterrent to prevent direct military conflicts between the two superpowers.
3. Which countries are included in NATO and the Warsaw Warsaw? Along what lines did the world and Europe split? Show on the map.
In 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was created. Initially, NATO included 12 states: the USA, Great Britain, France, Italy, Canada, Iceland, Denmark, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal, since 1952 - Greece and Turkey, since 1955 - Germany, since 1982 .- Spain, since 1999 - Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, since 2004 - Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania.
In 1955, a military-political alliance appeared under the leadership of the USSR - the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO). The Warsaw Pact of 1955 was signed by Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, USSR, Czechoslovakia and Albania (in 1962 Albania refused to participate in the Warsaw Pact). (In 1991, the Department of Internal Affairs was dissolved.)
The border between the two camps, as the split of the world into two irreconcilable socio-economic systems was then called, passed in Europe through the territory of Germany along the line of the western and eastern occupation zones, in the Far East along the 38th parallel in Korea and in Southeast Asia in Vietnam, where since 1946 French troops fought a war against the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
4. Explain the goals of the Truman and Eisenhower Doctrines and the Marshall Plan.
The Truman Doctrine: a policy of “containment” towards the USSR throughout the world. It was aimed at revising the system of international relations formed under Roosevelt. The Truman Doctrine was aimed at the struggle of the United States and its supporters for the political and economic unipolarity of the world.
Eisenhower Doctrine: Any country may request economic or military assistance from the United States if it is subject to military aggression by another country.
Marshall Plan for aid to countries Western Europe, which came into effect in April 1948, was intended to strengthen the foundations of capitalism in Europe. The USSR and socialist countries refused this assistance.
Abstract on history
Post-war settlement and revolutionary events in Europe.
Completed:
Yanina A.O.
Checked:
Zalinyaev V.E.
Moscow 2003
The beginning of a peace settlement.
During the First World War, 8 million people died. The same number remained disabled for life. The end of the war did not bring the peoples of the world the long-awaited peace. For several more years, hotbeds of conflict arose in Europe and other parts of the world, revolutions and uprisings broke out. The end of the war did not mean the resolution of political conflicts. Weakened by a long war, Europe ceased to be the main center of world politics. Representatives of Western European powers did not come up with any peace initiatives - they were put forward by the United States of America and Soviet Russia.
Soon after the end of hostilities, the process of post-war settlement began. A peace conference was convened, in which the Entente countries and their allies participated. It opened on January 18, 1919. in the hall of mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, on the same day and in the same place where the creation of the German Empire was proclaimed in 1871 after the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War. This was another humiliation for the German delegation, representing defeated side. The conference was chaired by the ardent opponent of Germany, French Prime Minister J. Clemenceau. He and other representatives of the victorious powers - US President William Wilson, Prime Ministers of Great Britain D. Lloyd George and Italy in Orlando - resolved all the most important issues. However, Italy's military weakness, which emerged during the war, reduced its international authority. During the conference, representatives of the USA, Great Britain and France took little account of the interests of this country and made decisions in an even narrower circle.
America, which entered the war later than the other great powers, managed not only to maintain its military and economic potential, but also received huge profits from the war. Until 1917, when the United States joined the Entente, it successfully traded with all the warring parties and became the largest international creditor. Wanting to consolidate the foreign policy successes of his country, President William Wilson put forward a program for a peaceful settlement, which American diplomacy stubbornly defended during the peace negotiations. Such activity was in itself unusual, since the Americans had previously adhered to a policy of isolationism. It consisted in the desire to avoid participation in the affairs of the “old continent” - Europe. The United States distanced itself from the colonial policies of the European powers, from their coalitions and conflicts. This position made it possible for Americans to appear in the eyes of residents of many countries as supporters of freedom and opponents of colonialism. Thanks to all this, the American president was able to initiate a truce between Germany and its allies and the Entente.
The peace conference at Versailles boiled down mainly to the development of conditions by the victorious countries for concluding peace with Germany. The French insistently demanded that the defeated enemy be punished. The British also wanted to prevent the restoration of German military power. The European powers and Japan hoped to divide the colonies of defeated Germany. These plans did not find support from the American delegation, which believed that excessive weakening and humiliation of Germany could lead to new conflicts in Europe. The Americans also insisted on granting the colonies of European powers greater independence, considering them as potential markets for industrial products. The Americans proposed making a new international organization, the League of Nations, a tool for preserving peace, the charter of which, in their opinion, should have been included in the text of the peace treaty.
Conclusion of peace treaties.
Despite the contradictions that arose between the victors, they managed to agree on the text of the peace treaty. The German delegation did not participate in this work. She was informed of the contents of the document before its signing, which took place at Versailles on June 28, 1919. Harsh and humiliating conditions were imposed on the vanquished. According to the Treaty of Versailles, Germany returned Alsace and Lorraine to France; the coal-rich Saar region was transferred to the management of a League of Nations commission for a period of 15 years; the left bank of the Rhine River was occupied by Allied forces for 15 years; Germany transferred Poznan to the restored Poland, as well as certain areas of Pomerania, West and East Prussia (while the majority of western Polish lands remained with Germany); Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a “free city” and placed under the administration of the League of Nations. Germany was losing all its colonies. Until 1921 The Germans had to pay reparations - 20 billion marks in gold.
