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Geographical terms and concepts. Geographical definitions. Great encyclopedia of oil and gas

In geographical literature the term " facies"was introduced in the 30s 20 by Ramensky. He considered facies as the smallest unit of landscape, the entire territory of which is characterized by the same type of origin and ecological regime (i.e., the same biota). Later, the term facies for use in the same sense was used by Solntsev, who developed the theory of morphology of L. In which facies received universal recognition.

Facies is the only natural geosystem characterized by complete homogeneity. On its area, the vertical structure of geohorizons is the same. According to M.A. Solntseva, within the facies, the same lithology of surface rocks is preserved, the nature of the relief and moisture is the same, and 1 biocenosis grows. But landscape space, according to the general systemic law of necessary diversity, is structurally differentiated. Complete natural homogeneity is preserved in the area only for very small areas and therefore the dimensions of the facies are small. Under different conditions, their area varies from 10-20 m2 to 1-3 km2. In the mountains their sizes are even smaller.

Facies connected with each other by horizontal material-energy flows form surrounding geosystems. In contrast to intercomponent vertical (regional) connections, interfacial connections are called lateral (lateral) horizontal. They can be caused by various factors: gravitational force, transfer of water and air masses, biogenic migrations of matter, etc. As a result, facies are integrated into several surrounding geosystems that are different in nature and genesis, which leads to a polystructural landscape space. Their essence lies in the recognition of the possibility of coexistence in the same landscape space of several heterogeneous geosystem formations (for example: a coastal zone along various reservoirs with any fluctuations in water in it).

Term tract was also introduced by Ramensky. It was taken from vernacular in which it designated an area different in nature from the surrounding territory. To date, tracts are called PTKs, which are a naturally constructed system of genetically, dynamically and territorially connected facies or their groups (sub-tracts) and usually occupy one mesorelief component. Typical tracts of flat landscapes are: a ravine with a ravine forest, a moraine hill forested with dark coniferous taiga, a steppe hill, a takyr in the desert, a meadow estuary among the steppe, etc.

Term geographical area Until now, it does not have an unambiguous definition in the landscape literature. In the very general view it is considered as the largest morphological part of the landscape. It is characterized by a special combination of the main tracts of this landscape. It is always associated not with some mesoform of relief, but with their morphological combination. The most important integrating factors for a terrain is the positional unity within a particular macroform of the relief and the associated paragenesis of the tracts composing it. On the elevated plains of the European part of Russia in the forest-steppe zone, the following areas are distinguished: flat meadow-steppe, slope, valley with upland oak groves and ravine-gully network, floodplain-terrace pine forest, floodplain forest-meadow, etc.

Video tutorial 2: Degree grid

Lecture: Geographical models. Geographic map, area plan. Their main parameters and elements

Geographical models of the Earth

The surface of the Earth cannot be depicted on paper because of its large sizes, so she is depicted as models.

Models of the Earth or surface include:

• area plan.

The surface of the planet is most accurately depicted on the globe:

firstly, the globe follows the shape of the Earth;

secondly, the distortion on the globe is less than when transferring the surface to a map (we transfer a round surface to a flat one);

thirdly, the globe gives an idea of ​​the position of our planet in outer space (angle of inclination, trajectory of rotation).

Using a map projection, the earth's surface is depicted on a globe, map or plan. The map and plan of the area are shown on flat surface, but they are different from each other. The map shows large areas of the Earth, and the plan shows small areas (several kilometers). Maps and plans differ in scale.

Image of the Earth on a map

To depict the surface of the earth on a map it is used degree grid: These are parallels and meridians located perpendicular to each other.

The parallels are located horizontally (parallel to the equator), the meridians stretch vertically from the north pole to the south. For convenience, we determined the prime meridian (Greenwich) from which the meridians go at a distance of 10° from each other, i.e. The prime meridian is the beginning of the hemispheres, which extends to 180° (the 180° meridian is the boundary of the hemispheres). To the east is considered to be eastern longitude, to the west is considered to be western longitude. The parallels also run at a distance of 10°. For convenience, the equator is chosen as the zero parallel. To the north is counted northern latitude, to the south - southern. Using a degree grid, you can plot objects on a map, as well as find their locations, that is, coordinates. To determine coordinates, you need to know the longitude and latitude of the area.

Maps differ from each other according to several criteria:

1. By scale
2. By content
3. By territory coverage

1. Maps are divided by scale into:

large scale,

medium-scale,

small-scale.

Scale– the ratio of the actual size of the territory to its image on the surface.

The scale can be numerical, linear (used when measuring the distance from point A to point B) and named.

The smaller the scale of the map, the larger the territory that can be depicted on it. Maps of hemispheres, continents and oceans, maps of states are small-scale maps. Medium-scale maps ranging from 1:200000 to 1:1000000. And large-scale (topographic) maps (1:10,000, 1:25,000 and 1:50,000).

2. According to the content of the card there are:

general geographical

thematic

Among the thematic maps there are tectonic, climatic, a map of the “peoples of the world”, and the “Physical map of the hemispheres” is a general geographical map. Thematic ones, in turn, are divided into physical-geographical and socio-economic. Accordingly, the first ones depict natural phenomena, secondly economic. For example, "Map of Prevailing Winds" refers to a thematic physical-geographical map. Map "World Population" refers to thematic socio-economic.

3. By territory coverage:

hemispheres map,

continents and oceans,

large regions, states, economic regions.

Maps are also complex, synthetic and analytical. Comprehensive maps provide a wealth of information about the area depicted. Synthetic maps show a holistic image, but do not provide an idea of ​​individual terrain objects. The climate map shows the types of climates, but we do not learn from this map either the temperature or the prevailing winds. Analytical maps give an idea of ​​one characteristic of the territory, for example, the extent of arable land.

In order to be able to read a map and find information on it, you need to know symbols and be able to read them correctly. All cards are depicted using symbols. Each card has its own set of symbols. The map of mineral resources shows the relief using isolines and colors. By color we determine the type of relief; isolines (lines connecting points of the same height) provide more accurate information about the height of the surface above or below sea level. Mineral deposits are indicated by special icons.

Geographical terms and concepts. Geographical definitions. Absolute altitude– vertical distance from sea level to a given point.a.v. points located above sea level are considered positive, below - negative.
Azimuth– the angle between the direction to the north and the direction to any object on the ground; calculated in degrees from 0 to 360° in a clockwise direction.

Iceberg- a large block of ice floating in the sea, lake or stranded.
Antarctic belt– descends from the South Pole to 70° S.
Anticyclone– region high blood pressure air in the atmosphere.

Area– the area of ​​distribution of any phenomenon or group of living organisms.
Arctic belt- descends from North Pole up to 70° N
Archipelago- a group of islands.
Atmosphere– the air shell of the Earth.
Atoll– a coral island in the shape of a ring.
Beam- a dry valley in steppe and forest-steppe regions in the Russian Plain.
Barkhan– cluster loose sand, blown by the wind and not fixed by vegetation.
Pool– an area of ​​depression that has no drainage on the surface.
Shore– a strip of land adjacent to a river, lake, sea; slope descending towards a water basin.
Biosphere- one of the shells of the Earth, includes all living organisms.
Breeze– local wind on the shores of seas, lakes and large rivers. Day breeze. (or sea) blows from the sea (lake) to land. Night breeze (or coastal) - from land to sea.
"Brocken Ghost"(along Mount Brocken in the Harz massif, Germany) is a special type of mirage observed on clouds or fog at sunrise or sunset.
Wind– air movement relative to the ground, usually horizontal, directed away from high pressure to low. The direction of the wind is determined by the side of the horizon from which it blows. Wind speed is determined in m/s, km/h, knots or approximately on the Beaufort scale.
Humidity– content of water vapor.
Watershed– the boundary between drainage basins.
Elevation- an area elevated above the surrounding area.
Waves– oscillatory movements aquatic environment seas and oceans caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the Sun (tidal waves), wind (wind waves), fluctuations atmospheric pressure(anemobaric waves), underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions (tsunamis).
Highlands– a set of mountain structures with steep slopes, pointed peaks and deep valleys; absolute heights are more than 3000 m. The highest mountain systems on the planet: the Himalayas, Mount Everest (8848 m) is located in Asia; in Central Asia, India and China - Karakorum, peak Chogori (8611 m).
Altitudinal zone– shift natural areas in the mountains from the base to the top, associated with climate and soil changes depending on the height above sea level.
Geographic coordinates– angular values ​​that determine the position of any point on globe relative to the equator and prime meridian.
Geospheres– shells of the Earth, differing in density and composition.
Hydrosphere- the water shell of the Earth.
Mountain- 1) an isolated sharp elevation among relatively flat terrain; 2) a peak in a mountainous country.
Mountains– vast territories with absolute heights of up to several thousand meters and sharp fluctuations in heights within their borders.
Mountain system- a collection of mountain ranges and mountain ranges that extend in one direction and have a common appearance.
Ridge– elongated, relatively low relief shape; formed by hills lined up in a row and merging at their bases.
Delta- an area where river sediment is deposited at the mouth of a river as it flows into the sea or lake.
Longitude geographical– the angle between the plane of the meridian passing through a given point and the plane of the prime meridian; measured in degrees and counted from the prime meridian to the east and west.
Valley– negative linearly elongated relief shape.
Dunes- accumulation of sand on the shores of seas, lakes and rivers, formed by the wind.
Bay- a part of the ocean (sea or lake) that extends quite deeply into the land, but has free water exchange with the main part of the reservoir.
The Earth's crust is the upper shell of the Earth.
Swell– a small, calm, uniform wave, disturbance of the sea, river or lake.
Ionosphere– high layers of the atmosphere, starting at an altitude of 50-60 km.
Source– the place where the river begins.
Canyon– a deep river valley with steep slopes and a narrow bottom. K. underwater - a deep valley within the underwater edge of the continent.
Karst– dissolution of rocks natural waters and the phenomena associated with it. Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a particular area. Local K., distributed over a relatively small area.
Climatic zone (or zone)- a vast region distinguished by climatic indicators.
Scythe- a sandy or pebble ridge stretching along the coast or protruding in the form of a cape far into the sea.
Crater- a depression created after a volcano explosion.
Ridge- a sharply rising large rise, one of the types of hills.
Avalanche- a mass of snow or ice falling down a steep slope.
Lagoon- a shallow bay or bay separated from the sea by a spit or coral reef.
Geographical landscape– type of terrain, a relatively homogeneous area of ​​the geographical envelope.
Glacier- a mass of ice moving slowly under the influence of gravity along a mountainside or valley. The Antarctic glacier is the largest on the planet, its area is 13 million 650 thousand km2, its maximum thickness exceeds 4.7 km, and the total volume of ice is about 25-27 million km3 - almost 90% of the volume of all ice on the planet.
Ice age- a period of time in the geological history of the Earth, characterized by a strong cooling of the climate.
Forest-steppe- a landscape in which forests and steppes alternate.
Forest-tundra- a landscape in which forests and tundra alternate.
Liman– shallow bay at the mouth of the river; usually separated from the sea by a spit or bar.
Lithosphere- one of the shells of the Earth.
Mantle- the shell of the Earth between the earth's crust and core.
Mainland- a large part of land surrounded on all sides by oceans and seas.
Australia– in the Southern Hemisphere, between the Indian and Pacific oceans (the smallest of the continents);
America North and South– in the Western Hemisphere, between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans;
Antarctica– in the central part of the South Polar Region (the southernmost and highest continent on the planet);
Africa– in the Southern Hemisphere (the second largest continent);
Eurasia– in the Northern Hemisphere (the largest continent on Earth).
Meridians geographically e – imaginary circles passing through the poles and crossing the equator at right angles; all their points lie at the same geographical longitude.
World ocean- the entire body of water on Earth.
Monsoons are winds that periodically change their direction depending on the time of year: in winter they blow from land to sea, and in summer from sea to land.
Highlands– a mountainous country, characterized by a combination of mountain ranges and massifs and located high above sea level. Tibet- in Central Asia, the highest and greatest highland on Earth. Its base rests at absolute altitudes of 3500-5000 m or more. Some peaks rise up to 7000 m.
Lowlands – lower tier mountainous countries or independent mountain structures with absolute heights from 500 m to 1500 m. The most famous of them Ural Mountains, which stretch for 2000 km from north to south - from the Kara Sea to the steppes of Kazakhstan. The vast majority of the peaks of the Urals are below 1500 m.
Lowland– a plain that does not rise above 200 m above sea level. The most famous and significant among them is the Amazon Lowland with an area of ​​more than 5 million km2 in South America.
Lake- a natural body of water on the surface of the land. The largest lake in the world is the Caspian Sea-lake and the deepest is Lake Baikal.
Oceans- parts of the World Ocean separated from each other by continents and islands. Atlantic; Indian - ocean of heated waters; The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest ocean; The Pacific Ocean (Great), the largest and deepest ocean on Earth.
Landslide– downslope displacement of a mass of loose rock under the influence of gravity.
Island- a piece of land surrounded on all sides by the waters of the ocean, sea, lake or river. The largest island in the world is Greenland with an area of ​​2 million 176 thousand km2. Relative height is the vertical distance between the top of a mountain and its foot.
Geographical parallels– imaginary circles parallel to the equator, all points of which have the same latitude.
Greenhouse effect(atmospheric greenhouse effect) – protective actions of the atmosphere associated with the absorption of reflected long-wave radiation.
Trade winds– constant winds in tropical areas, blowing towards the equator.
Plateau- 1) high plain, limited by steep ledges; 2) a vast flat area on a mountain top.
Plateau underwater– an elevation of the seabed with a flat top and steep slopes.
Plyos– a deep (wide) section of the river bed between the rifts.
Plateau- a vast area of ​​land with an altitude from 300-500 m to 1000-2000 m or more above sea level with flat peaks and deeply incised valleys. For example: East African, Central Siberian, Vitim plateau.
Floodplain- part of a river valley that is flooded during high water.
Semi-desert- a transitional landscape that combines the features of a steppe or desert.
Earth's hemisphere- half of the earth’s sphere, allocated either along the equator or along the meridians of 160° east. and 20°W (Eastern and Western hemispheres), or according to other characteristics.
Geographic poles– points of intersection of the Earth’s rotation axis with the earth’s surface. Magnetic points of the Earth are points on the earth’s surface where the magnetic needle is located vertically, i.e. where a magnetic compass is not applicable for orientation by cardinal directions.
Arctic Circles(North and South) - parallels located 66° 33′ north and south of the equator.
Threshold– shallow area in the river bed with large slope and fast current.
Foothills– hills and low mountains surrounding the highlands.
Prairies- vast grassy steppes in the North. America.
Ebbs and flows– periodic fluctuations in the water level of seas and oceans, which are caused by the attraction of the Moon and the Sun.
Deserts– vast spaces with almost no vegetation due to the dry and hot climate. The largest desert on the globe is the Sahara in the North. Africa.
Plains– vast flat or slightly hilly expanses of land. The largest on Earth is the Eastern European, or Russian, with an area of ​​more than 6 million km2 and the West Siberian in the north of Eurasia, with an area of ​​about 3 million km2.
River- a constant stream of water flowing in a riverbed. Amazon is a river in the South. America, the largest in the world in length (more than 7,000 km from the source of the Ucayali River), in basin area (7,180 m2) and in water content; Mississippi is the largest river in the North. America, one of the greatest on Earth (length from the source of the Missouri River 6420 km); The Nile is a river in Africa (length 6671 km).
Relief– a set of various irregularities of the earth’s surface of various origins; are formed through a combination of impacts on the earth's surface by endogenous and exogenous processes.
Bed- the deepened part of the valley bottom occupied by a river.
Savannah- a landscape of the tropics and subtropics, in which herbaceous vegetation is combined with separate trees or groups of them.
North Pole- the point of intersection of the earth's axis with the earth's surface in the North. hemispheres.
Sel- a mud or mud-stone stream that suddenly passes through the valley of a mountain river.
Tornado (American name tornado) – vortex movement of air in the form of a funnel or column.
Srednegorye– mountain structures with absolute heights from 1500 to 3000 m. There are the most mountain structures of medium height on Earth. They are spread over vast areas of the south and northeast of Siberia. Almost all of them are occupied Far East, eastern China and the Indochina Peninsula; in northern Africa and the East African Plateau; Carpathians, mountains of the Balkan, Apennine, Iberian and Scandinavian peninsulas in Europe, etc.
Slope- an inclined area on land or seabed. Windward slope - facing the direction from which the prevailing winds blow. Leeward slope – facing the direction opposite to the direction of the prevailing winds.
Steppe– treeless spaces with an arid climate, characterized by herbaceous vegetation. In Eurasia, steppes stretch in an almost continuous strip from the Black Sea to Northeast China, and in North America occupy vast expanses of the Great Plains, joining in the south with the savannas of the tropical belt.
Stratosphere– layer of the atmosphere.
Subtropical zones(subtropics) - located between tropical and temperate zones.
Subequatorial belts– located between the equatorial belt and tropical zones.
Taiga– zone coniferous forests temperate zone. The taiga covers the northern part of Eurasia and North America in an almost continuous belt.
Typhoon- the name of tropical cyclones of storm and hurricane force in Southeast Asia and the Far East.
Takyr- a flat depression in the desert, covered with a hardened clay crust.
Tectonic movements– movements earth's crust, changing its structure and shape.
Tropics- 1) imaginary parallel circles on the globe, located 23°30° north and south of the equator: the tropics of Capricorn (northern tropic) - the tropics of the northern hemisphere and the tropics of Cancer (southern tropic) - the tropics of the southern hemisphere; 2) natural zones.
Tropical zones– located between subtropical and subequatorial zones.
Troposphere– lower layer of the atmosphere.
Tundra– treeless landscape in the Arctic and Antarctic.
Temperate zones– located in temperate latitudes.
Temperate latitudes– located between 40° and 65° N. and between 42° and 58° S.
Hurricane– a storm with a wind speed of 30-50 m/s.
Estuary– the place where a river flows into a sea, lake or other river.
Atmospheric front- a zone separating warm and cold air masses.
Fiord (fjord)- a narrow, deep sea bay with rocky shores, which is a glacial valley flooded by the sea.
Hill– a small height and gently sloping hill.
Cyclones– area of ​​low atmospheric pressure.
Tsunami is the Japanese name for huge waves resulting from underwater earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Parts of the world– regions of the Earth, including continents (or parts thereof) with nearby islands. Australia, Asia, America, Antarctica, Africa, Europe.
Shelf– continental shelf with prevailing depths of up to 200 m (in some cases more).
Latitude geographical– the angle between the plumb line at a given point and the plane of the equator, measured in degrees and counted from the equator to the north and south.
Squall– a sharp short-term increase in wind before a storm.
Calm- calm, calm.
Storm– very strong wind, accompanied by strong rough seas.
Equator- an imaginary line connecting points on the globe equidistant from the poles.
Exosphere– layer of the atmosphere.
Ecosphere- an area of ​​outer space suitable for the existence of living organisms.
Erosion– destruction of soils and rocks by flowing waters.
South Pole– the point of intersection of the earth’s axis with the earth’s surface in the Southern Hemisphere.
Earth's core– the central part of the planet with a radius of about 3470 km.

Economic and social geography

Enclave- part of the territory of one state, surrounded on all sides by the territory of other states and having no access to the sea.
Urban agglomeration- a group of closely located cities, united by close labor, cultural, social, and infrastructure ties into a complex system.
Trade balance- the difference between goods exported from the country (export of the country) and imported (import).
Population reproduction- a set of processes of fertility, mortality and natural increase that ensure the continuous renewal and change of human generations.
Geographical environment- part of the earth’s nature with which society interacts at a given stage of historical development.
Geopolitics- addiction foreign policy states depending on their geographical location and other physical and economic-geographical factors.
Global Population Issues- a set of socio-demographic problems affecting the interests of all humanity, creating a threat to its present and future; United efforts of all states and peoples are needed to solve them.
Demographic policy- a system of administrative, economic, propaganda measures with the help of which the state influences natural increase population in the direction desired.
Demographic revolution- transition from one type of population reproduction to another.
Demography- a spider about population, the patterns of its reproduction.
Natural population growth- the difference between the birth rate and death rate per 1000 inhabitants per year.
Immigration- entry into the country for permanent or temporary (usually long-term) residence of citizens of other countries.
Import- import of goods into the country from other countries.
Industrialization is the creation of large-scale machine production in all sectors of the economy, the transformation of the country from an agricultural to an industrial one.
International economic integration- the process of establishing deep and sustainable economic relations between countries, based on their implementation of coordinated interstate policies.
Intensive development path- increase in production volumes due to additional capital investments in existing production facilities.
Infrastructure- a set of structures, buildings, systems and services necessary for normal functioning and provision everyday life population.
Conversion- transfer of military production to the production of civilian products.
Megalopolis (metropolis)- the largest form of settlement that arose as a result of the fusion of several neighboring urban agglomerations.
Intersectoral complex- a group of industries that produce homogeneous products or have close technological connections.
Population migration- movement of the population across the territory associated with a change of place of residence.
National economy- interaction of people and means of production: means of labor and objects of labor.
Science intensity- level of costs for scientific research and development in total production costs.
Scientific and technological revolution (STR)- a radical qualitative revolution in the productive forces of society, based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force.
Nation- a historical and social community of people, formed in a certain territory in the process of development of social market relations of the industrial type and inter-district (international) division of labor.
Industry- a set of enterprises producing homogeneous products or providing homogeneous services.
Socio-economic region- the territory of the country, including several administrative units, differing from others in the features of historical development, geographical location, natural and labor resources, specialization of the economy.
Zoning- division of territory into districts according to a number of characteristics.
Regional policy- a set of legislative, administrative, economic and environmental measures that contribute to the rational distribution of production across the territory and equalization of people’s living standards.
Resource availability- the relationship between the quantity natural resources and the extent of their use.
Free economic zone- a territory with a profitable EGP, in which, in order to attract foreign capital, preferential tax and customs regimes and special pricing conditions are established.
Production specialization- production by enterprises individual parts and nodes, certain types products, performing one or more technological operations.
Territory specialization- concentration in the area of ​​production of certain products or certain services
Structure of the national economy- the relationship between various spheres and industries in terms of product value, number of employees or the value of fixed production assets.
Suburbanization- the process of growth of suburban areas of cities, leading to an outflow of population and places of employment from their central parts.
Territorial division of labor- specialization of individual regions and countries in the production of certain types of products and services and their subsequent exchange.
Labor resources- part of the country's population capable of labor activity and having the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge for work.
Urbanization- the process of urban growth and the spread of urban lifestyle to the entire network of populated areas.
Service- work aimed at meeting the needs of the individual consumer.
Economic-geographical location (EGP)- the position of the object in relation to other geographical objects that have economic significance for it.
Economically active population- part of the country's population, comma in national economy, and unemployed, actively job seekers and ready to work.
Export- export of goods to other countries.
Extensive development path- increase in production volumes due to quantitative growth of production units.
Emigration- departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a long period.
Power system- a group of power plants connected by power lines and controlled from a single center.
Ethnos- a historically established stable community of people with a unique internal structure and an original stereotype of behavior, determined to a greater extent by the “native” landscape.

Terrain I Terrain

V physical geography one of the morphological parts of the geographic landscape (See Geographical landscape). It is a group of conjugate tracts (See Urochishche), associated with individual large forms of relief (for example, with watersheds, river valleys and terraces, etc.) or with fluctuations in the depth of occurrence of the same bedrock (pre-anthropogenic) rocks (for example, karst-prone limestones under the cover of loess-like loams). M. in landscape science are also considered complex systems tracts of the same type that merged in the process of their development (for example, systems of raised bog massifs in taiga landscapes), and parts of the landscape that differ from each other in the quantitative ratio of the areas occupied by different types of tracts (for example, pine forests, swamps in the taiga, etc.) with homogeneous qualitative composition of the latter. In geographical literature the term "M." also used in in a general sense(as a landscape, a territory with a peculiar combination natural conditions).

A. G. Isachenko.

Big Soviet encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

See what “Terrain” is in other dictionaries:

See place identify the area... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and similar expressions. under. ed. N. Abramova, M.: Russian Dictionaries, 1999. locality place (location), edge, side, district, country, territory; region, neighborhood, region, balchug... Dictionary of synonyms

- [sn], localities, plural. locality, localities (localities, etc. incorrect), wives. (book). 1. Place, some specific space, area on the earth's surface. Mountainous terrain. Beautiful area. The battery was shooting at... ... Dictionary Ushakova

1) any specific place, space, area on the earth’s surface (Ozhegov, (1981); 2) part of the territory with all its natural components, communication routes, settlements, industry, agriculture and socially... Ecological dictionary

IN in a broad sense part of the earth's surface with all its natural components: relief, soils, waters, vegetation, etc.; as well as with communication routes, populated areas, industrial and socio-cultural facilities. In English:... ... Financial Dictionary

In landscape science, a morphological unit of landscape, a natural-territorial complex of a higher rank than a tract. It is the largest morphological part of the landscape, characterized by a special combination of the main tracts... ... Wikipedia

terrain- TERRAIN, place... Dictionary-thesaurus of synonyms of Russian speech

1) part of the territory, characterized by the commonality of some characteristics (natural, historical, etc.). 2) In physical geography, a large morphological part of the geographical landscape, a complex of tracts ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

TERRAIN, etc. and, to her, wives. 1. Kakoen. a certain place, space, area on the earth's surface. Mountainous steppe m. Open m. 2. Territory (usually rural), in which several populated areas are located. Densely populated,... ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

terrain- locality, pl. locality, family localities (wrong localities, localities). Pronounced [locality]... Dictionary of difficulties of pronunciation and stress in modern Russian language

terrain- - Telecommunications topics, basic concepts of EN locality... Technical Translator's Guide

terrain- Part of the earth’s surface with all its natural components (topography, soils, waters, etc.), as well as communication routes, socio-economic and cultural objects... Dictionary of Geography

Books

• Princely area and the temple of princes in Smolensk. Historical and archaeological research in connection with the history of Smolensk. , Pisarev S.P.. This book will be produced in accordance with your order using Print-on-Demand technology. The book is a reprint of 1894. Despite the fact that a serious…

Analysis topographic maps is carried out with the aim of studying the study area, its features, patterns of location, the relationship of objects and phenomena, the dynamics of their development, etc. The analysis allows you to correctly select a map of a certain scale depending on the direction of intended use (for familiarization with the area, for orientation on the ground, as a basics for compiling hypsometric, soil, landscape maps, for scientific analysis of natural and socio-economic phenomena, etc.)

The selection of maps is accompanied by an assessment of the degree of their suitability for specific work in terms of the accuracy and detail of the information that is expected to be obtained using the maps. It is necessary to take into account that increasing the scale of maps leads to an increase in the number of map sheets, reducing visibility of the territory, but increasing the accuracy of the information. The time of issue of cards determines their suitability current state territories. The dynamics of geographical phenomena are revealed by comparing maps from different times to the same territory.

The following methods of map analysis are used: visual, graphical, graphic-analytical and mathematical-statistical.

Visual method is based on the visual perception of an image of a terrain, a comparison of graphically shown terrain elements by shape, size, structure, etc. It involves a predominantly qualitative description of objects and phenomena, but is often accompanied by an eye-based assessment of distances, areas, heights and their ratios.

Graphical analysis consists of studying constructions made using maps. Such constructions are profiles, sections, block diagrams, etc. Using graphical analysis techniques, patterns of spatial distribution of phenomena are revealed.

Graphic-analytical analysis divided into cartometric and morphometric. Cartometric techniques consist of measuring the length of lines on maps, determining coordinates, areas, volumes, angles, depths, etc. Morphometric techniques make it possible to determine the average height, thickness, power of a phenomenon, horizontal and vertical dissection of the surface, slopes and gradients of the surface, tortuosity of lines and contours etc.

Numerical indicators of the prevalence of objects, connections between them, and the degree of influence of various factors make it possible to establish methods of mathematical and statistical analysis. Using mathematical modeling methods, spatial mathematical models of the terrain are created.

Geographical description terrain is compiled after a preliminary study of the map and is accompanied by measurements and calculations based on comparison of lengths, angles, areas with a linear scale, location scale, etc. The basic principle of description is from general to specific. The description is constructed according to the following scheme:

1) card details(nomenclature, scale, year of publication);

2) description of the boundary of the area(geographical and rectangular coordinates);

3) relief characteristics(type of relief, landforms and the area and extent they occupy, absolute and relative elevation marks, main watersheds, shape and steepness of slopes, the presence of ravines, cliffs, gullies with an indication of their length and depth, anthropogenic landforms - quarries, embankments, excavations, mounds, etc.);

4) hydrographic network– names of objects, length, width, depth, direction and speed of river flow, slope, nature of the banks, bottom soil; characteristics of the floodplain (size, presence of old channels, floodplain lakes and depth of swamps); the presence of hydraulic structures, as well as bridges, ferries, fords and their characteristics; description of the reclamation network, its density; the presence of springs and wells;

5) vegetation cover and soils– type, composition of rocks, occupied area, nature of placement. If there are forests - their characteristics, width of clearings, presence of clearings;

6) settlements– name, type, population, administrative significance, structure and layout, predominant buildings (fire-resistant or non-fire-resistant), industrial facilities;

7) communication routes– railways and highways. For railways - the number of tracks, type of traction, names of stations, terminals. For highways and other roads - the nature of the surface and width.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ERROR THEORY

MEASUREMENTS

Concept of measurements

Measurement – This is the process of comparing a measured quantity with a value taken as a unit of comparison, as a result of which a named number is obtained, called measurement result.

There are: straight, or direct And indirect measurements.

Direct These are called measurements when the quantities being determined are obtained directly from measurements, as a result of direct comparison with the unit of measurement. Examples of direct measurements are determining distances with a measuring tape, measuring angles with a theodolite.

Indirect are those measurements in which the determined quantities are obtained as functions of directly measured quantities. The indirect method involves calculating the value of the desired quantity. For example, the elevation in trigonometric leveling is a function of the distance and inclination angle measured directly on the ground.

The measurement results are divided into equally accurate And unequal.

Equally accurate are the results of measurements of homogeneous quantities obtained through repeated measurements under similar conditions (by the same observer with the same instrument, by the same method and under the same environmental conditions).

If even one of the listed conditions is violated, the measurement results are referred to unequal.

When mathematically processing the results of topographic and geodetic measurements, the concepts of necessary And excessive number of measurements. IN general case To solve any topographic problem, it is necessary to measure a certain minimum number of quantities to ensure a solution to the problem. These measurements are called the number of required measurements t. Difference k when subtracting the number of required measurements t from among all measured quantities n, called the number of redundant quantities k = n – t. Redundant measurements of quantities make it possible to detect errors in the results of measurements and calculations and increase the accuracy of the determined quantities.