Social division of labor. The influence of the international division of labor on the world economy
division of labor
international division of labor: concentration of production of certain types of goods in those countries where their production is economically feasible due to geographical location, climate and the availability of natural resources, as well as labor and capital resources. Such division of production, thanks to the subsequent exchange of goods, turns out to be beneficial for the countries participating in it and contributes to better satisfaction of needs, increased employment, but leads to mutual dependence of states;
differentiation, specialization labor activity, leading to the isolation and implementation of its various types. With the vertical division of labor, division occurs across levels, for example, production and production management are separated. With the horizontal division of labor, types of work are divided within one level, for example, manufacturing, processing of product parts and assembly of the product from these parts are distinguished.
Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998
division of labor
differentiation, specialization of labor activity, coexistence of its various types. Social division of labor is the differentiation in society of various social functions performed by certain groups of people, and in connection with this the separation of various spheres of society (industry, agriculture, science, art, army, etc.). Technical division of labor is the division of labor into a number of partial functions and operations within an enterprise or organization. The social and technical division of labor finds expression in the professional division of labor. The specialization of production within a country and between countries is called the territorial and international division of labor. Initially, the division of labor was gender and age. Subsequently, the division of labor in combination with the action of other factors (property inequality, etc.) leads to the emergence of various social groups. IN modern era The international division of labor is growing, which contributes to the development of world integration processes.
Division of labor
qualitative differentiation of labor activity in the process of social development, leading to the isolation and coexistence of its various types. Industrial production exists in different forms, corresponding to the level of development of the productive forces and the nature of production relations. A manifestation of R. t. is the exchange of activities. There is R. t. within society and within an enterprise. These two main types of R. t. are interconnected and interdependent. The division of social production into its large types (such as agriculture, industry, etc.) K. Marx called general industrial production; the division of these types of production into types and subtypes (for example, industry into separate branches) was called private industrial production. and, finally, labor management within an enterprise ≈ single labor management. General, specific, and individual labor regulations are inseparable from professional labor management and the specialization of workers. The term "R. T." It is also used to denote the specialization of production within one country and between countries—territorial and international R. t. In social science, R. t. has received different interpretations. Ancient authors (Isocrates, Xenophon) emphasized its positive significance for the growth of labor productivity. Plato saw in R. t. the basis for the existence of different classes, main reason hierarchical structure of society. Representatives of classical bourgeois political economy, especially A. Smith (he coined the term “R. t.”), noted that R. t. leads to the greatest progress in the development of the productive forces, and at the same time pointed out that it turns the worker into a limited being. In J. J. Rousseau, the protest against the transformation of people into one-sided individuals as a consequence of R. t. was one of the main arguments in his denunciation of civilization. The beginning of the romantic criticism of capitalist political theory was laid by F. Schiller, who noted its deep contradictions and at the same time did not see a way to eliminate them. His ideal is the “whole and harmonious man” of Ancient Greece. Utopian socialists, recognizing the necessity and benefits of R. t., at the same time looked for ways to eliminate its harmful consequences for human development. A. Saint-Simon put forward the task of organizing a coordinated labor system, which requires a close connection of parts and their dependence on the whole. To maintain interest in work, C. Fourier put forward the idea of changing activities. From the middle of the 19th century. for the bourgeois social thought characterized by an apology for R. t. O. Comte and G. Spencer noted the beneficial significance of R. t. for social progress, and considered the negative consequences to be necessary and natural costs or attributed them not to R. t. in itself, but to distorting external ones influences (E. Durkheim). In modern bourgeois sociology, on the one hand, there continues to be an apology for capitalist R. t., and on the other hand, criticism of it, emphasizing the fact that R. t. is one of the main reasons for the depersonalization of the individual, turning him into an object of manipulation industrial system capitalism, bureaucratic organizations and the state, into the impersonal element of “mass society”. However, bourgeois-liberal critics of capitalist political theory (E. Fromm, D. Riesman, W. White, C. R. Mills, A. Tofler, C. Reich - USA) put forward naive-utopian recipes for eliminating the vices of the capitalist system. A truly scientific assessment of Rt. was given by Marxism-Leninism. He notes its historical inevitability and progressiveness, points out the contradictions of antagonistic R. t. in an exploitative society and reveals the only correct ways to eliminate them. At the early stage of development of society, there was a natural r. t. ≈ by gender and age. With the increasing complexity of the tools of production, with the expansion of the forms of people’s influence on nature, their labor began to qualitatively differentiate and certain types of it began to separate from each other. This was dictated by obvious expediency, since R. t. led to an increase in its productivity. V.I. Lenin wrote: “In order to increase the productivity of human labor, aimed, for example, at the production of some piece of the entire product, it is necessary that the production of this piece be specialized, become a special production that deals with a mass product and therefore allows (and causing) the use of machines, etc.” ( Complete collection cit., 5th ed., vol. 1, p. 95). From here Lenin concluded that the specialization of social labor “... by its very essence, is endless - just like the development of technology” (ibid.). Production is unthinkable without cooperation, the cooperation of people, which gives rise to a certain distribution of activities. “It goes without saying,” wrote K. Marx, “that this necessity of distributing social labor in certain proportions cannot in any way be destroyed by a certain form of social production; only the form of its manifestation can change” (K. Marx and F. Engels, Op. ., 2nd ed., vol. 32, p. 460≈46
The forms of distribution of labor find direct expression in economic labor, which also determines the existence of historically determined forms of property. “Different stages in the development of the division of labor,” wrote Marx and Engels, “are at the same time different forms of property, that is, each stage of the division of labor also determines the relationship of individuals to each other according to their relationship to the material, tools and products of labor "(ibid., vol. 3, p. 20).
The process of distribution of people in production, associated with the growth of specialization, occurs either consciously, systematically, or takes on a spontaneous and antagonistic character. In primitive communities this process was systematic. The tools of labor here were strictly individualized, but labor and the use of its results could not then be fragmented - the low productivity of people’s labor excluded their separation from the community.
Since throughout the entire previous history of mankind, the production process consisted in the fact that people wedged a production tool between themselves and the object of labor, themselves becoming a direct component of the production process, then, starting from the primitive community, the individualization of tools of labor led to the “attachment” of people to them and certain types differentiated activities. But since all members of the community had common interests, such “attachment” was natural and was considered justified and reasonable.
With the development of instruments of production, the expediency and necessity of relatively isolated labor of individuals arose, and more productive instruments made it possible for individual families to exist separately. This is how the transformation of directly social labor, as it was in primitive communities, into private labor took place. Characterizing the rural community as a transitional form to full private property, Marx noted that here the labor of individuals acquired a separate, private character, and this was the reason for the emergence of private property. “But the most essential thing,” he wrote, “is parcel labor as a source of private appropriation” (K. Marx, ibid., vol. 19, p. 419).
In pre-capitalist formations, Engels wrote, “means of labor - land, agricultural implements, workshops, craft tools - were means of labor for individuals, intended only for individual use... But for this reason, they, as a rule, belonged to the producer himself ... Consequently, the right of ownership of products rested on one’s own labor” (ibid., pp. 211, 213).
As a result of the fragmentation of labor, its transformation into private labor and the emergence of private property, a contradiction in the economic interests of individuals, social inequality arose, and society developed in conditions of spontaneity. It entered an antagonistic period in its history. People began to be assigned to certain tools of labor and various types of increasingly differentiated activities against their will and consciousness, due to the blind need for the development of production. This main feature of antagonistic Rt. is not an eternal state, as if inherent in the very nature of people, but a historically transitory phenomenon.
Antagonistic R. t. leads to alienation from a person of all other types of activity, except for the relatively narrow sphere of his work. The material and spiritual values created by people, as well as social relations themselves, leave their control and begin to dominate them. “... The division of labor,” wrote Marx and Engels, “also gives us the first example of the fact that as long as people are in a spontaneously formed society, as long as, therefore, there is a gap between private and general interest, as long as, therefore, the division of activity takes place not voluntarily, but spontaneously - a person’s own activity becomes alien to him, a force opposing him, which oppresses him, instead of him dominating it” (ibid., vol. 3 p. 31).
This state can only end under two indispensable conditions: first, when the means of production as a result of the socialist revolution pass from private to public property and the spontaneous development of society is put to an end; second ≈ when the productive forces reach such a stage of development that people will cease to be chained to strictly defined tools and types of activity, and will cease to be direct agents of production. Two fundamental changes are associated with this: firstly, the isolation of people in work ceases, work fully becomes directly social; secondly, work acquires a truly creative character, turns into technological use science, when the subject appears next to the direct process of production, masters, manages and controls it. These are two indispensable conditions for achieving true freedom, comprehensive development and self-affirmation of man as a rational being of nature.
Marx pointed out that productive labor must simultaneously become the self-realization of the subject. “In material production, labor can acquire a similar character only in the way that 1) its social character is given and
that this work has a scientific character, that at the same time it represents universal labor, is the effort of man not as a force of nature trained in a certain way, but as an object that appears in the production process not in a purely natural, naturally formed form, but in the form activity that controls all the forces of nature” (ibid., vol. 46, part 2, p. 110). Of course, the specialization of labor processes will inevitably continue along with the expansion of people's impact on nature. For example, a biologist will always differ in object and type of activity from a geologist. However, both of them, like all other members of society, will be engaged in freely chosen creative work. All people will cooperate, complementing each other and acting as subjects who intelligently control the forces of nature and society, i.e., true creators.
A shorter working day and a huge increase in free time will give people the opportunity, along with professional creative work, to constantly engage in their favorite activities: art, science, sports, etc. In this way, the one-sidedness caused by antagonistic R.t. will be completely overcome, and the comprehensive and free development of all people will be ensured.
S. M. Kovalev.
History of the development of division of labor. The determining condition for economic development is the growth of the productive forces of society. “The level of development of a nation’s productive forces is revealed most clearly in the degree to which its division of labor is developed” (K. Marx and F. Engels, ibid., vol. 3, p. 20). At the same time, the development and differentiation of instruments of production play a decisive role in the deepening of industrial production. In turn, industrial production contributes to the development of productive forces and the growth of labor productivity. The accumulation of production experience and work skills among people is directly dependent on the degree of industrial development and on the specialization of workers in certain types of labor. Technical progress is inextricably linked with the development of social technology.
The growth and deepening of industrial relations also influence the development of production relations. Historically, within the framework of the primitive communal system, the first large social tribal society arose (the separation of pastoral tribes), which created the conditions for regular exchange between tribes. “The first major social division of labor, together with an increase in the productivity of labor, and therefore wealth, and with an expansion of the sphere of productive activity, under the historical conditions of that time, taken together, necessarily entailed slavery. From the first major social division of labor arose the first major division of society into two classes - masters and slaves, exploiters and exploited" (F. Engels, ibid., vol. 21, p. 161). With the emergence of the slave-owning system, based on the further growth of productive forces, a second major social labor development developed—the separation of crafts from agriculture, which marked the beginning of the separation of city from countryside and the emergence of an opposition between them (see Antithesis between city and countryside). The separation of crafts from agriculture meant the emergence of commodity production (see Commodity). Further development exchange entailed the third major social revolution—the separation of trade from production and the separation of the merchant class. In the era of slavery, an opposition appears between mental and physical labor. The emergence of territorial and professional radio trade also dates back to ancient times.
The emergence and development of the machine industry was accompanied by a significant deepening of social economic technology and the spontaneous formation of new branches of production. One of the most important manifestations of the process of socialization of labor under capitalism is specialization, an increase in the number of branches of industrial production. Under capitalism, R&D also arises within enterprises. The spontaneous development of labor under capitalism exacerbates the antagonistic contradiction between the social nature of production and the private form of appropriation of the product, between production and consumption, etc. Describing the antagonistic basis for the development of labor under capitalism, K. Marx noted that “the division of labor has already from the very beginning contains a division of working conditions, tools and materials..., and thereby a split between capital and labor... The more the division of labor develops and the more accumulation grows, the stronger... this split develops" ( ibid., vol. 3, p. 66).
The development of capitalism determines the economic rapprochement of peoples and the development of international economic relations. But this progressive trend under capitalism is carried out through the subjugation of some peoples by others, through the oppression and exploitation of peoples (see Colonies and colonial policy, Neocolonialism).
Under socialism, a fundamentally new system of R. T. is created, corresponding to its economic system. On the basis of the dominance of social ownership of the means of production and the abolition of the exploitation of man by man, the exploitative foundations of human labor have been eliminated. The differences between the mental and physical labor, between city and countryside. Systematic economic development is one of the necessary conditions for expanded socialist reproduction. The system of political labor in the USSR and other countries of the world socialist system is inextricably linked with the structure of socialist society. Under socialism, labor takes the form of cooperation and mutual assistance of people free from exploitation.
Social trade unionism under socialism finds its manifestation in the following forms: trade unionism between branches of social production and individual enterprises; territorial R. t. (see Distribution of productive forces); R. t. between individual employees, associated with R. t. within enterprises. The development of socialist production in accordance with the basic economic law of socialism and the law of planned, proportional development of the national economy determines the continuous growth of sectors of socialist production, the differentiation of old sectors and the emergence of new ones. Systematic economic management between industries and enterprises gives socialist society enormous advantages over the capitalist economic system.
The socialist economy also introduces changes in the trade and trade within an enterprise, and in the trade trade between people of different professions and specialties. Under socialism, the cultural and technical level of workers and collective farmers is growing rapidly, and their qualifications are improving.
Comprehensive polytechnic education and the transition to universal secondary education provide members of socialist society with a free choice of professions and facilitate the combination and change of specialties and professions. At the same time, polytechnic education does not exclude vocational education and specialization of members of society. The possibility of free choice of profession contributes to the transformation of labor into the first vital need, which is one of the conditions for the transition to the highest phase of communism.
A fundamentally new international socialist division of labor has developed between the countries of the world socialist system, which is fundamentally different from the international labor division in the capitalist economic system and is taking shape in the process of cooperation between equal states moving towards the same goal - the building of communism. Thanks to socialist international economic development, the elimination of economic backwardness and one-sidedness of economic development inherited by individual countries from capitalism is facilitated, their economic independence is strengthened, the economy develops more quickly, and the well-being of the people increases. At the present stage, socialist economic Rt. is further developed and deepened in the course of socialist economic integration (see Socialist Economic Integration).
L.Y. Berry.
Wikipedia
Division of labor
Division of labor(Also - Labor union) - a historically established process of people fulfilling their specialized types activity in a common matter for all, accompanied by isolation, modification, and consolidation of certain types of labor activity, which occurs in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity.
There are:
- general division of labor by branches of social production;
- private division of labor within industries;
- single division of labor within organizations according to technological, qualification and functional characteristics.
It is the reason for increasing the overall labor productivity of an organized group of specialists (synergistic effect) due to the development of skills and automation of simple repetitive operations, as well as by reducing the time spent on transition between different operations
The concept of division of labor was first systematically described by Adam Smith in the first three chapters of An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.
The division of labor led to modern world to the presence of a huge variety of different professions and industries. In ancient times, people were forced to almost completely provide themselves with everything they needed; this was extremely ineffective, which led to a primitive life and comfort. Almost all achievements of evolution, scientific and technological progress can be explained by the continuous introduction of the division of labor. Thanks to the exchange of the results of labor, that is, trade, the division of labor becomes possible in society.
1. The essence of the division of labor and its types
2. Vertical and horizontal division of labor and their impact on the activities of the organization
3. Assessing the effectiveness of the division of labor in the organization
List of sources
1. The essence of the division of labor and its types
The basis of economic development is the creation of nature itself - the division of functions between people, based on their gender, age, physical, physiological and other characteristics. The mechanism of economic cooperation assumes that some group or individual focuses on performing a strictly specific type of work, while others are engaged in other types of activities.
There are several definitions of the division of labor. Here are just a few of them.
Division of labor is a historical process of separation, consolidation, modification of individual types of activity, which occurs in social forms of differentiation and implementation various types labor activity. The division of labor in society is constantly changing, and the system of various types of labor activity itself is becoming more and more complex, as the labor process itself becomes more complex and deepening.
Division of labor (or specialization) is the principle of organizing production in an economy, according to which an individual is engaged in the production of a separate good. Thanks to the action of this principle, with a limited amount of resources, people can receive much more benefits than if everyone provided themselves with everything they need.
There is also a distinction between the division of labor in the broad and narrow sense (according to K. Marx).
In a broad sense, the division of labor is a system of different types of labor, production functions, occupations in general or their combinations that are different in their characteristics and simultaneously interact with each other, as well as a system of social relations between them. The empirical diversity of occupations is considered by economic statistics, labor economics, branch economics, demography, etc. Territorial, including international, division of labor is described by economic geography. To determine the relationship between various production functions from the point of view of their material result, K. Marx preferred to use the term “distribution of labor.”
In a narrow sense, the division of labor is the social division of labor as human activity in its social essence, which, unlike specialization, is a historically transitory social relationship. Specialization of labor is the division of types of labor by subject, which directly expresses the progress of productive forces and contributes to it. The diversity of such species corresponds to the degree of human exploration of nature and grows with its development. However, in class formations, specialization is not carried out as a specialization of integral activities, since it itself is influenced by the social division of labor. The latter divides human activity into such partial functions and operations, each of which in itself no longer has the nature of activity and does not act as a way for man to reproduce it. social relations, his culture, his spiritual wealth and himself as a person. These partial functions are devoid of their own meaning and logic; their necessity appears only as demands placed on them from the outside by the system of division of labor. This is the division of material and spiritual (mental and physical), executive and managerial labor, practical and ideological functions, etc. An expression of the social division of labor is the identification as separate spheres of material production, science, art, etc., as well as the dismemberment of them themselves. The division of labor historically inevitably grows into a class division.
Due to the fact that members of society began to specialize in the production of certain goods, professions appeared in society - separate types of activities related to the production of any good.
The division of labor in an organization refers to the division of people's activities in the process of joint work.
Division of labor presupposes the specialization of individual performers in performing a certain part of joint work, which cannot be accomplished without clear coordination of the actions of individual workers or their groups.
The division of labor is characterized by qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Division of labor according to quality This feature involves separating types of work according to their complexity. Performing such work requires special knowledge and practical skills. Division of labor according to quantitative the attribute ensures the establishment of a certain proportionality between qualitatively different types of labor. The combination of these characteristics largely determines the organization of work as a whole.
Ensuring a rational division of labor at an enterprise within a particular work team (team, section, workshop, enterprise) is one of the important areas of improving labor organization. The choice of forms of division largely determines the layout and equipment of workplaces, their maintenance, methods and techniques of labor, its rationing, payment and provision of favorable production conditions. The division of labor in an enterprise, in a workshop, determines the quantitative and qualitative proportions between individual types of labor, the selection and placement of workers in the production process, their training and advanced training.
Correctly chosen forms of division of labor and its cooperation make it possible to ensure rational workload of workers, clear coordination and synchronicity in their work, and reduce time loss and equipment downtime. Ultimately, the amount of labor costs per unit of production and, consequently, the level of labor productivity depend on the forms of division of labor. This is the economic essence of the rational division of labor.
At the same time, the social aspect of the scientifically based division of labor plays a great role. The correct choice of forms of division of labor helps to increase the content of labor, which ensures workers’ satisfaction with their work, the development of collectivism and interchangeability, increased responsibility for the results of collective work, and the strengthening of labor discipline.
At enterprises, the following types of division of labor are distinguished: technological, functional, professional and qualification.
Technological division of labor involves the separation of groups of workers on the basis of their performance of technologically homogeneous work in individual phases, types of work and operations (at mechanical engineering and metalworking enterprises - foundry, forging, machining, assembly and other work; at mining enterprises - mining preparation and cleaning work; at worsted production enterprises of the textile industry - scattering, opening, carding, tape, roving, spinning, twisting, winding, sizing, weaving and other works). Within the framework of the technological division of labor in relation to certain types of work, for example assembly work, depending on the degree of fragmentation of labor processes, operational, detail and subject division of labor is distinguished.
The technological division of labor largely determines the functional, professional and qualification division of labor in an enterprise. It allows you to determine the need for workers by profession and specialty, and the level of specialization of their labor.
Functional The division of labor differs in the role of individual groups of workers in the production process. On this basis, first of all, two large groups of workers are distinguished - main and service (auxiliary). Each of these groups is divided into functional subgroups (for example, a group of service workers - into subgroups of those engaged in repair, adjustment, instrumental, loading and unloading work, etc.).
Ensuring at enterprises the correct ratio of the number of main and auxiliary workers on the basis of a rational functional division of their labor, and a significant improvement in the organization of labor of service workers are important reserves for increasing labor productivity in industry.
Professional The division of labor is carried out depending on the professional specialization of workers and involves performing work in a particular profession (specialty) at the workplace. Based on the volume of each type of work, it is possible to determine the need for workers by profession for a site, workshop, production, enterprise and association as a whole.
Qualification The division of labor is determined by varying complexity, requiring a certain level of knowledge and experience of workers. For each profession, a composition of operations or works of varying degrees of complexity is established, which are grouped according to the assigned working tariff categories.
The process of improving the division of labor must be continuous, taking into account constantly changing production conditions, contributing to the achievement of the best performance indicators.
The development of measures to improve the division of labor is usually preceded by a quantitative assessment of the division of labor. To do this, the division of labor coefficient is calculated ( Kr.t), recommended by the Labor Research Institute. It characterizes the degree of specialization of workers and is calculated taking into account the time they spent performing functions corresponding to their qualifications and provided for by production tasks, according to the formula
Kr.t =1 – / tcm *np (1)
where is the time spent on performing functions not provided for in the tariff and qualification reference book for workers in a given profession, min;
– time spent on performing functions not provided for in the technological documentation, min;
tcm – shift duration, min;
n.p.– total (on payroll) number of workers at the enterprise;
– total loss of working time across the enterprise associated with downtime for technical and organizational reasons, as well as violations of labor discipline.
From the above formula it is clear that the less time is spent on performing an operation (work) not provided for in the tariff and qualification reference book, normative or technological documentation, the greater the numerical value of the coefficient and, therefore, the more rational the division of labor in the accepted cooperation.
In the conditions of any enterprise there are opportunities to choose the most rational forms of division of labor. In each case, the choice should be made on the basis of a comprehensive analysis of the specifics of production, the nature of the work performed, requirements for their quality, the degree of workload of workers and a number of other factors.
In modern conditions, increasing the efficiency of labor by improving its division should be carried out on the basis of a wider combination of professions, expanding the scope of application of multi-machine (multi-unit) services, and further development of the collective (team) form of organizing workers' labor.
The search and implementation of new forms of division of labor require their mandatory experimental testing. Only in practice can one finally establish the effectiveness of one or another form of division of labor and identify both its positive and negative aspects.
The main direction for improving the division of labor is choosing the best option for each specific site, taking into account economic, technical, technological, psychophysiological and social requirements.
The main economic requirement for optimal separation labor is to ensure production output in specified volumes and high quality at the lowest labor, material and financial costs.
Technical and technological requirements provide for the completion of each element of work by the appropriate performer on this equipment during the established working hours. These requirements decisively determine the technological, functional, professional and qualification division of labor.
Psychophysiological requirements are aimed at preventing overwork of workers due to heavy physical exertion, nervous tension, impoverished work content, monotony or physical inactivity (insufficient physical activity), which often leads to premature fatigue and decreased productivity.
Social requirements require the presence of creative elements in the work, increasing the content and attractiveness of work.
As a rule, these requirements are not met by a single organizational solution, so there is a need to choose one option for the division of labor. The complexity of this task lies in its versatility, in the choice of criteria for determining boundaries, and the variety of methods for dividing labor in various types of enterprise.
It is known that as a result of the division of labor, specialization of workers occurs, which, on the one hand, ensures a reduction in labor costs, and on the other hand, can impoverish its content, lead to increased monotony (after a certain limit) and a decrease in productivity. Increasing the workload of performers does not always mean an increase in the productive operating time of the equipment; it is also possible inverse relationship.
With the establishment of more intense time standards, the required number of performers decreases, but the likelihood of a decrease in the quality of work increases. Providing creative elements as part of the operations performed is often associated with additional time spent per unit of production, but it increases the content and attractiveness of the work, reduces staff turnover, etc.
The choice of the most optimal solution should balance the effects of various factors and ensure the most effective achievement of the production goal. To do this, it is sometimes necessary to conduct special experiments and studies using mathematical methods and computer technology(for selection the best option). However, the economic and social effect of these works should significantly cover the costs of their implementation.
Designing the division of labor at enterprises by making optimal organizational decisions is very effective and is one of the most promising areas for improving labor organization.
Division of labor are the most important factors production, which largely determines the forms of labor organization.
2. Vertical and horizontal division of labor and their impact on the activities of the organization
Any organization faces the task of forming and developing a management structure as a means of purposefully coordinating the efforts of all elements that make up this organization. The management structure must establish a clear relationship between various activities within the organization, subordinating them to the achievement of certain goals. The end result of the organizational system is to increase production efficiency. The simple sum of machines, raw materials and people is not an organization. A company can increase its productivity only by improving the way it combines these resources. Every system must be structured to function effectively. To effectively ensure the achievement of established goals, it is necessary to understand the structure of each job performed, all departments and the organization as a whole. Any organization faces the task of forming and developing a management structure as a means of purposefully coordinating the efforts of all elements that make up this organization. The management structure must establish a clear relationship between various activities within the organization, subordinating them to the achievement of certain goals. The end result of the organizational system is to increase production efficiency. The simple sum of machines, raw materials and people is not an organization. A company can increase its productivity only by improving the way it combines these resources. Every system must be structured to function effectively. To effectively ensure the achievement of established goals, it is necessary to understand the structure of each job performed, all departments and the organization as a whole.
In most organizations, the structure is designed in such a way that each division and, in turn, each employee specializes in certain areas activities.
The rational division of labor depends both on the absolute volume of work performed and on the required level of knowledge of individual workers in different fields of activity and their qualifications. When developing an organizational structure, one of the main questions is to what extent the division of labor should be carried out, bearing in mind the advantages of specialization.
Within an organization, there is a horizontal and vertical division of labor. Horizontal division of labor is carried out through the differentiation of functions in the organization.
The diagram of the vertical division of labor is presented in Figure 1. Manager top level manages the activities of middle and lower level managers, i.e. formally has more power and higher status. Vertical differentiation is related to the management hierarchy in an organization. The more steps in the hierarchical ladder there are between the top level of management and the performers, the more complex the organization is. Powers are distributed among positions and managers holding these positions. The purpose of the organization is seen as a guide to direct the flow of connections and authority. Because work in an organization is divided into component parts, someone must coordinate the activities of all parts of the system through a vertical division of labor that separates the work of coordinating activities from the activities themselves. The activity of coordinating the work of other people is the essence of management.
It is important to take into account the degree of isolation of management functions.
The objective limitations of any leader make hierarchical organization important. The manager can reduce his workload by delegating it to a lower level, but at the same time the load that has the nature of monitoring the execution of work increases. The need for the next level of hierarchy appears when the volume of work to control the manager’s capabilities increases. The number of persons subordinate to one manager is usually called the "sphere of control" or "span of management", or "scale of control", or "range and scope of management"
Figure 1 – Vertical division of labor
The horizontal division of labor scheme is presented in Figure 2, which reflects control coverage and functionalization. Coverage of control is the number of subordinates who report to one manager. Functionalization is the variety of tasks that must be completed to achieve the organization's goals. The top-level manager has direct control over three middle-level managers - production, accounting and marketing. In turn, middle-level managers have direct control over the corresponding lower-level managers, and they directly over a certain number of performers. This can be viewed as functionalization, resulting in certain specialized units. Along with this, there is a geographical (territorial) division of labor associated with the degree of distribution of physical acts of the organization across different regions. In this structure, communication, coordination and control become more complex. The division of all work into its constituent components is usually called horizontal division of labor. For example, a professor gives a course of lectures, and an assistant conducts practical classes. In this case, he could conduct practical classes himself, but, given the difference in qualifications, it would be more appropriate to transfer these functions to an assistant.
Doesn't exist general rules, which could be used to determine the appropriate "scope of control" in each situation. This depends on various circumstances - on the manager’s ability to establish connections with employees subordinate to him, the nature of the functions performed, the territorial location of departments, the qualifications and experience of employees, forms of control and coordination, the nature of the mood of informal groups, etc.
The more different areas an organization has that require specialized knowledge and skills, the more complex it is. Horizontal specialization aims to differentiate functions. It covers the definition of work (connecting various individual knowledge) and the definition of the relationship between different types of work that can be performed by one or many workers.
Vertical division of labor involves the management and coordination of certain groups of people to achieve a given goal. In our example, the assistant cannot take over the functions of the professor, since he reports to him. Consequently, the professor takes on the functions of a manager.
Moreover, the policy of forming a horizontal division of labor comes down to:
– job definition, i.e. reducing individual tasks into specific homogeneous types of work and establishing connections between them. Moreover, each job can be performed by one or different persons occupying certain positions in the organization;
– management coverage, i.e. the number of subordinates who report to the relevant managers is determined;
– functionalization of the organization, i.e. establishing a set of diverse tasks that must be completed to achieve the organization's goals;
– division of an organization into structural parts - departments, sectors, bureaus, workshops, sections and other divisions.
3. Assessing the effectiveness of the division of labor in the organization
In order for an organization to achieve its goals and develop, a division of labor cannot be automatically carried out. It must perform this stage of the management process as effectively as all others. Since management functions are interdependent, ineffective division of labor creates problems for each subsequent function.
It is necessary to distinguish between the scale and depth of work. Scope of work– this is the number of works performed, their volume. An employee who performs, for example, eight tasks has a broader scope of work than someone who performs four tasks. Concept depth of work refers to the amount of control an employee exercises during the course of work. The depth of work is personal in nature; it can be different for different employees at the same organizational level. For example, the head of marketing at industrial company has a greater depth of work than, say, an accountant in charge of current production accounting. When solving specific problems of division of labor in the management structure, it is necessary to carefully consider not only the functional focus and scale of the work performed, but also their depth.
A large number of workers and managers repeatedly perform a limited range of work every day - monotonous, with a minimum scale and depth. Such work or tasks are called template. They lack completeness, autonomy, are monotonous and cause fatigue. Absenteeism, sabotage, and staff turnover are often a reaction of workers to the monotony of repetitive work in which they are constantly busy.
Research shows that there is a tipping point for specializing operations (dividing work into smaller operations or reducing supervision). After reaching this point (a certain level of specialization), the income received begins to decline. In every special case the limits of specialization must be taken into account. Ways to overcome the negative consequences of the division of labor are the consolidation of technological operations, alternation of work and their effective planning. If an increase in the variety of work is associated with the introduction of motivational factors into them, then the consolidation of technological operations, being a factor in increasing productivity, is associated primarily with technical aspects.
Numerous studies have been conducted in different countries on the relationship between the level of division of labor and job satisfaction. They showed that the models individual work allow achieving higher quality of labor than linear and group models, including assembly lines. Positive results were achieved by expanding the powers and responsibilities of the leader of group work compared to individual work (increasing the depth of work), during the transition from highly specialized work to work of greater scale and depth. There are also cases when employees are satisfied with template work or are indifferent to the level of scale or depth of their work. In general, if the work does not have sufficient scope and depth, then the attitude of workers towards it is usually negative.
For a number of decades, the principle has been used in theory and practice that all types of work should be grouped in such a way that each worker reports to only one supervisor. Moreover, it was recommended that the number of employees reporting to one manager be strictly limited. Term "control coverage" means the size of the team under one manager. The most famous work in this area belongs to V.S. Graichunas. He believed that since a manager has limited energy, knowledge and qualifications, he can coordinate the work of a limited number of workers.
Graichunas also suggested that an increase in the number of subordinates in the arithmetic profession leads to an increase in geometric progression the number of relationships under the control of the manager. The potential relationships that can arise between a leader and subordinates are classified as individual leadership, group leadership, and cross-linkage. Graichunas developed the following formula for determining the number of potential contacts of a manager with a different number of subordinate employees:
C= n 2 n /2+ n -1, (2)
where n is the number of employees subordinate to the manager;
C – number of potential relationships.
How many subordinates should a manager have? In theory, this issue is analyzed by identifying a number of general factors that influence the frequency and type of relationships between the leader and subordinates. Some of these factors are very important:
Required contact. In various types of production, research and other work, there is a need for frequent contacts and a high level of coordination of activities. The use of conferences, meetings, personal meetings and consultations often helps in achieving goals. For example, the leader of a research team must consult frequently with team members on specific issues to ensure that the project is completed on time and the completed work is presented to the market. Wide coverage of control over the work performed through frequent contacts with subordinates has a decisive influence on the implementation and successful completion of the project.
Level of education and preparedness of subordinates. Training subordinates is fundamental in establishing control at all levels of management. It is generally accepted that a manager at lower levels of an organization can lead a large number subordinates because the work at these levels is more specialized and less complex than at higher levels.
Communication ability. This factor plays important role in establishing an effective mechanism for resolving problems in various work situations, real and operational coordination of the activities of departments and employees.
It is known that reducing the number of persons subordinate to one manager (i.e., narrowing the scope of control) gives rise to a management structure that is a tall pyramid with a narrow base. If an organization has a large span of control, it takes the form of a "flat" bell-shaped structure.
Taking into account rational control coverage and in the interests of achieving an effective division of labor, the organization is divided into appropriate structural blocks (departments, divisions, services). This approach to the formation of an organizational structure is called departmentalization. Depending on the characteristics and criteria for dividing an organization into blocks, it is customary to distinguish between: functional, territorial, production, project and mixed departmentalization.
Functional departmentalization. Many organizations group employees and activities according to functions performed within the firm (production, marketing, finance, accounting, human resources). The functional composition of an organization is the most commonly used scheme for organizing the personnel and activities of a company. The relevant departments consist of experts and specialists in certain fields, which ensures the most informed and effective solution problems. The disadvantage of such a scheme is that since specialists work in one area of interest, the overall goals of the organization may be sacrificed to the goals of a given department.
Territorial departmentalization. Another frequently encountered approach is the creation of groups of people on the basis of a certain territory where the organization’s activities are carried out in one form or another. The activities of organizations in a given territory must be subordinate to the appropriate leader who is responsible for it. For large organizations, territorial division is very important, since the physical dispersion of activities makes it difficult to divide labor. An advantage often associated with territorial division is that it creates local training for management personnel.
Production departmentalization. In many large companies that have diversified production, activities and personnel are formed on the basis of products. As the scale of the company increases, it is difficult to coordinate the efforts of various functional groups, so the creation of production divisions is considered feasible and promising. This form of organization allows staff to gain experience in research, production and distribution of products. The concentration of powers and responsibilities in special departments enables managers to effectively coordinate all types of activities.
Project departmentalization. In project departmentalization, activities and personnel are concentrated in a unit on a temporary basis. The project manager is responsible for all activities - from the beginning to the complete completion of the project or some part of it. After completion of the work, temporary staff are transferred to other departments or assigned to other projects. The project manager often has engineers, accountants, production managers, and researchers subordinate to him. These personnel often come from special functional units. When working on a specific project, the responsible manager is viewed as a person with complete authority and the right to control. In many cases, this is not achieved because project personnel continue to report to their permanent functional managers. Emerging contradictions are resolved by higher-ranking managers.
Mixed departmentalization. An assessment of the above forms of departmentalization shows that each type has strong and weaknesses. Often mixed structures are introduced in organizations, especially when managers are trying to simultaneously solve the problems of current changes in the market, a rapid increase in the supply of goods and services, and external regulation. There is not one structure that could be described as universal. The creation of a wide variety of divisions is dictated by the specific operating conditions of the organization.
List of sources used
1. Vikhansky O.S., Naumov A.I., “Management”, M., Moscow State University, 1995 – 408 p.
2. I.A. Skopylatov. Personnel management, St. Petersburg, 2000 – 335 p.
3. Personnel management., under. ed. Kibanova A.Ya. and L.V. Ivanovskoy., M., 1999 – 237 p.
4. V.M. Tsvetaev. Personnel management, St. Petersburg. 1999 – 289 p.
5. V.P. Pugachev. Personnel management of an organization., M., 1998 – 359 p.
6. A.P. Egorshin. Personnel management. N. Novgorod., 1997 – 274 p.
7. V.I. Scatulla. Handbook for HR Manager. M., 2000 – 283 p.
8. Shipunov V.G., Kishkel E.N. Fundamentals of management activities: Proc. for medium specialist. textbook establishments. – M.: Higher. school, 1996. – 271 p.
9. Meskon M.Kh., Albert M., Khedouri F. Fundamentals of management: Transl. from English – M.: Delo, 1995. – 704 p.
Public production activity people is carried out in the form of division and cooperation of labor.
Division of labor- this is a qualitative differentiation of labor activity in the process of development of society, leading to the isolation of its various types. The forms and patterns of division of labor are determined both by the level of development of the productive forces and by the prevailing relations of production. The law of division of labor is one of the important laws of labor economics.
There are two sides to the division of labor - specialization of labor and exchange of activities. Specialization of labor characterizes the state of the productive forces. Relations of exchange of activities, isolated by specialization of labor, belong to production relations.
The division of labor is characterized by qualitative and quantitative characteristics. The division of labor on a qualitative basis presupposes the separation of types of work according to their complexity. Performing such work requires special knowledge and practical skills. The division of labor on a quantitative basis ensures the establishment of a certain proportionality between qualitatively different types of labor. The combination of these characteristics largely determines the organization of work as a whole.
Depending on the type and variety of work, the following forms of division of labor are distinguished: functional, professional, qualification and technological. In addition, the division of labor occurs on a territorial basis between large and small units, as well as within the unit.
1. Technological division of labor involves the separation of groups of workers based on their performance of technologically homogeneous work in individual phases, types of work and operations. Within the framework of the technological division of labor in relation to certain types of work, for example assembly work, depending on the degree of fragmentation of labor processes, operational, detail and subject division of labor is distinguished (at machine-building and metalworking enterprises - foundry, forging, machining, assembly and other work; at mining enterprises - mining preparation and cleaning works.
The technological division of labor determines the placement of workers in accordance with production technology and significantly affects the level of content of labor. With narrow specialization, monotony appears in the work; with too broad specialization, the likelihood of poor quality work increases. The responsible task of the labor organizer is to find the optimal level of technological division of labor. Varieties of this form of division are detailed, objective and operational division of labor.
The technological division of labor largely determines the functional, professional and qualification division of labor in an enterprise. It allows you to determine the need for workers by profession and specialty, and the level of specialization of their labor.
- 2. Functional division of labor differs in the role of individual groups of workers in the production process. On this basis, first of all, two large groups of workers are distinguished - main and service (auxiliary). Each of these groups is divided into functional subgroups:
- · between categories of workers included in the personnel of the enterprise (workers, managers, specialists and employees). A characteristic trend in the development of this type of division of labor is the increasing share of specialists in the production personnel.
- · between main and auxiliary workers. The share of workers setting up and repairing machines and mechanisms, as well as those engaged in the manufacture of tools and technological equipment, is growing. The proportion of workers employed in loading and unloading, warehouse operations, etc. is decreasing.
The first of them are directly involved in changing the shape and condition of the objects of labor being processed, for example, workers in foundries, mechanical and assembly shops of machine-building enterprises, engaged in performing technological operations for the manufacture of main products. The latter do not directly participate in the implementation of the technological process, but create the necessary conditions for the uninterrupted and efficient work of the main workers. Ensuring at enterprises the correct ratio of the number of main and auxiliary workers on the basis of a rational functional division of their labor, and a significant improvement in the organization of labor of service workers are important reserves for increasing labor productivity in industry.
3. Professional division of labor carried out depending on the professional specialization of workers and involves performing work in a particular profession (specialty) at the workplace. Professional division develops depending on the tools used, objects of labor, and production technology. Based on the volume of each type of work, it is possible to determine the need for workers by profession for a site, workshop, production, enterprise and association as a whole.
Observations show that changes in the professional division of labor are characterized by an increase absolute number and the share of mechanized labor professions, a reduction in the number of narrow professions and specialties, and an increase in the number of general professions.
There is a close connection between the professional division of labor and the transition from one stage of technical and technological development of production to another (partial mechanization, comprehensive mechanization of labor, automation)
4. Qualification division of labor depending on the complexity of the work, requiring a certain level of knowledge and experience of workers. It has a very close connection with an increase in the cultural and technical level of workers, leading to a reduction in the share of low-skilled labor.
Qualification differences between groups of workers are objectively determined by the varying complexity of the work performed. Workers of the same profession or specialty may have different knowledge, ability to work and production experience. All this is expressed in qualifications - the quality of work (labor) and underlies the distribution of workers into qualification groups - ranks, categories, classes, etc.
For each profession, a composition of operations or works of varying degrees of complexity is established, which are grouped according to the assigned working tariff categories. On this basis, the number of workers in each profession is determined according to their qualification categories. The names of professions and specialties of workers are regulated by the Classifier, which is valid state standard, and the content is determined by the Unified Tariff and Qualification Directory of Work and Profession of Workers (UTKS). cooperation labor division
It should be noted that the division of labor, meaning the simultaneous coexistence of various types of labor activity, plays an important role in the development of the organization of production and labor: firstly, it is a necessary prerequisite for the production process and a condition for increasing labor productivity; secondly, it allows you to organize sequential and simultaneous processing of the subject of labor in all phases of production; thirdly, it promotes the specialization of production processes and the improvement of the labor skills of the workers involved in them. But the division of labor as a process of specialization of workers cannot be considered only as a narrowing of the scope of human activity through the performance of increasingly limited functions and production operations. The division of labor is a multilateral, complex process, which, changing its forms, reflects the action of the objective law of labor change.
At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the existence of boundaries of expediency in the process of division of labor, ignoring which may have a negative impact on the organization and results of production.
There are the following boundaries of the division of labor:
- 1. Economic boundaries are determined by the fact that once they are achieved, further deepening is not economically feasible, since it leads to a decrease in the level of efficiency in the use of production factors. This is due both to the irrational lengthening of the production cycle of a particular product, and to the excessively narrow, economically unjustified specialization of commodity producers, which often leads to sharp fluctuations in market demand for their products.
- 2. Psychophysiological boundary determined by acceptable physical and psychological stress. The duration of operations must be within acceptable limits and contain a variety of labor techniques, the implementation of which ensures alternating loads on various organs and parts of the worker’s body. The monotony of the labor process, associated with the duration and repetition of monotonous techniques and actions of performers during a certain period, depends on the number of elements in the operation, the duration of repeated elements, and the repetition of monotonous techniques and actions.
- 3. Social boundary is determined by the minimum necessary variety of functions performed, ensuring the content and attractiveness of work. An employee should not only see the results of his work, but also receive a certain satisfaction from it. Labor, which is a set of simple movements and actions, reduces interest in it. It is devoid of creativity and does not contribute to the growth of workers' skills.
It should also be noted that:
- 1) the division of labor should not lead to a decrease in the efficiency of using working time and equipment;
- 2) it should not be accompanied by impersonality and irresponsibility in the organization of production;
- 3) the division of labor should not be excessively fractional, so as not to complicate the design and organization of production processes and labor regulation, and also not to reduce the qualifications of workers, not to deprive work of content, not to make it monotonous and tedious.
The monotony of labor is a very serious negative factor that manifests itself in the process of deepening the division of labor in production. Remedies against monotony can include periodic changes of jobs, elimination of the monotony of labor movements, the introduction of variable labor rhythms, regulated breaks for active recreation, etc.
It is important to note that the division of labor at enterprises should take into account not only the growth of labor productivity, but also the conditions for the comprehensive development of workers, eliminating the negative impact of the production environment on the human body and increasing the attractiveness of work. The degree of division of labor largely depends on the specific operating conditions of the enterprise: belonging to the industry of production, type and scale of production, level of mechanization, automation, volume of output and specifics of products, etc.
In this regard, the following requirements are important:
- · the importance of division of labor: it is a necessary prerequisite for the production process and a condition for increasing labor productivity;
- · allows you to organize sequential and simultaneous processing of the subject of labor in all phases of production;
- · promotes the specialization of production processes and the improvement of the labor skills of the workers involved.
The basis of economic development is the creation of nature itself - the division of functions between people, based on their gender, age, physical, physiological and other characteristics. The mechanism of economic cooperation assumes that some group or individual focuses on performing a strictly specific type of work, while others are engaged in other types of activities.
There are several definitions of the division of labor. Here are just a few of them.
Division of labor- this is a historical process of isolation, consolidation, modification of certain types of activity, which occurs in social forms of differentiation and implementation of various types of labor activity. The division of labor in society is constantly changing, and the system of various types of labor activity itself is becoming more and more complex, as the labor process itself becomes more complex and deepening.
Division of labor(or specialization) is the principle of organizing production in an economy, according to which an individual is engaged in the production of a separate good. Thanks to the action of this principle, with a limited amount of resources, people can receive much more benefits than if everyone provided themselves with everything they need.
There is also a distinction between the division of labor in the broad and narrow sense (according to K. Marx).
In a broad sense division of labor- this is a system of types of labor, production functions, occupations in general or their combinations that are different in their characteristics and simultaneously interact with each other, as well as a system of social relations between them. The empirical diversity of occupations is considered by economic statistics, labor economics, branch economic sciences, demography, etc. The territorial, including international, division of labor is described by economic geography. To determine the relationship between various production functions from the point of view of their material result, K. Marx preferred to use the term “distribution of labor.”
In a narrow sense division of labor- this is the social division of labor as human activity in its social essence, which, in contrast to specialization, is a historically transitory social relationship. Specialization of labor is the division of types of labor by subject, which directly expresses the progress of productive forces and contributes to it. The diversity of such species corresponds to the degree of human exploration of nature and grows with its development. However, in class formations, specialization is not carried out as a specialization of integral activities, since it itself is influenced by the social division of labor. The latter divides human activity into such partial functions and operations, each of which in itself no longer has the nature of activity and does not act as a way for a person to reproduce his social relations, his culture, his spiritual wealth and himself as an individual. These partial functions are devoid of their own meaning and logic; their necessity appears only as demands placed on them from the outside by the system of division of labor. This is the division of material and spiritual (mental and physical), executive and managerial labor, practical and ideological functions, etc. An expression of the social division of labor is the separation of material production, science, art, etc. as separate spheres, as well as the division themselves. The division of labor historically inevitably grows into a class division.
Due to the fact that members of society began to specialize in the production of individual goods, professions– individual types of activities related to the production of any good.
But the division of labor does not at all mean that in our imaginary society one person will be engaged in one type of production. It may turn out that several people will have to do a separate species production, or so that one person will be engaged in the production of several goods.
Why? It's all about the relationship between the size of the population's need for a particular good and the labor productivity of a particular profession. If one fisherman can catch just enough fish in a day to satisfy all members of society, then there will be just one fisherman in this household. But if one hunter from the mentioned tribe cannot shoot quails for everyone and his work is not enough to satisfy the needs of all members of the household for quails, then several people will go hunting at once. Or, for example, if one potter can produce so many pots that society cannot consume, then he will have extra time which he can use to produce some other good, such as spoons or plates.
Thus, the degree of "division" of labor depends on the size of society. For a certain population size (that is, for a certain composition and size of needs), there is its own optimal structure of occupations, in which the product produced by different manufacturers, there will be just enough for all members, and all products will be produced at the lowest possible cost. With an increase in population, this optimal structure of occupations will change, the number of producers of those goods that were already produced by an individual will increase, and those types of production that were previously entrusted to one person will be entrusted to different people.
In the history of the economy, the process of division of labor went through several stages, differing in the degree of specialization of individual members of society in the production of one or another good.
The division of labor is usually divided into several types depending on the characteristics by which it is carried out.
Natural division of labor: the process of separating types of labor activity by gender and age.
Technical division of labor: determined by the nature of the means of production used, primarily equipment and technology.
Social division of labor: natural and technical division of labor, taken in their interaction and in unity with economic factors, under the influence of which there is a separation and differentiation of various types of labor activity.
In addition, the social division of labor includes 2 more subtypes: sectoral and territorial. Sectoral division of labor is predetermined by the production conditions, the nature of the raw materials used, technology, equipment and the manufactured product. Territorial division of labor is the spatial arrangement of various types of work activities. Its development is determined both by differences in natural and climatic conditions and by economic factors.
Under geographical division of labor we understand the spatial form of the social division of labor. A necessary condition for the geographical division of labor is that different countries (or regions) work for each other, that the result of labor is transported from one place to another, so that there is thus a gap between the place of production and the place of consumption.
In a commodity society, the geographical division of labor necessarily involves the transfer of products from farm to farm, i.e. exchange, trade, but exchange in these conditions is only a sign for “recognizing” the presence of a geographical division of labor, but not its “essence”.
There are 3 forms of social division of labor:
The general division of labor is characterized by the separation of large types (spheres) of activity, which differ from each other in the form of the product.
Private division of labor is the process of separating individual industries within large types of production.
A single division of labor characterizes the separation of the production of individual components of finished products, as well as the separation of individual technological operations.
Differentiation consists in the process of separating individual industries, determined by the specifics of the means of production, technology and labor used.
Specialization is based on differentiation, but it develops on the basis of concentrating efforts on a narrow range of products.
Universalization is the antithesis of specialization. It is based on release and implementation wide range goods and services.
Diversification is the expansion of the range of products.
The first and main statement that A. Smith puts forward, which defines the greatest progress in the development of the productive power of labor and a significant share of the art, skill and intelligence with which it (progress) is directed and applied, is a consequence of the division of labor. The division of labor is the most important and unacceptable condition for the progress of the development of productive forces, the development of the economy of any state, any society. A. Smith gives the simplest example of the division of labor in small and large enterprises (manufacture in contemporary society) - the elementary production of pins. A worker who is not trained in this production and does not know how to handle the machines used in it (the impetus for the invention of machines was given precisely by the division of labor) can hardly make one pin a day. When an organization exists in such production, it is necessary to divide the profession into a number of specialties, each of which is a separate occupation. One worker pulls the wire, another straightens it, the third cuts it, the fourth sharpens the end, the fifth grinds it to attach the head, the manufacture of which requires two or three more independent operations, in addition to its attachment, polishing the pin itself, packaging finished products. Thus, labor in the production of a pin is divided into a multi-stage series of operations, and depending on the organization of production and the size of the enterprise, they can be performed each separately (one worker - one operation), or combined into 2 - 3 (one worker - 2 - 3 operations ). Using this simple example, A. Smith asserts the undoubted priority of such a division of labor over the work of a single worker. 10 workers produced 48,000 pins per day, while one could produce 20 pins at high voltage. The division of labor in any craft, no matter how large it is introduced, causes an increase in labor productivity. The further development (up to the present day) of production in any sector of the economy was the clearest confirmation of the “discovery” of A. Smith.
delimitation and isolation of people’s activities in the process of joint labor. There is a general division of labor - the separation of various types of labor activity on the scale of the national economy (industry, transport, agriculture, etc.); private - characterizes the division and isolation of industrial production into separate economic sectors (machine tool building, shipbuilding, etc.); single - represent the separation of various types of work within one industrial enterprise. The main forms of intra-production division of labor are functional, technological and professional-qualification. In accordance with the functional division of labor, enterprise employees are divided into industrial production personnel and personnel engaged in non-industrial work (household services, etc.). Technological division of labor is the division and isolation of the production process according to subject or operational principles. Subject (detail) division involves assigning to a worker a set of various operations aimed at producing a certain type of product. Operational - based on assigning a limited set of technological operations to specialized workplaces and is the basis for the formation of production lines. The professional and qualification division of labor makes it possible to group workers according to the types of technological processes they carry out, distinguishing various professions and specialties, and within them - qualification categories etc. Objects of labor are everything that labor is aimed at, that undergoes changes in order to acquire beneficial properties and thereby satisfy human needs. The productive power of labor is its ability to produce more and more products as the technical equipment of production increases. Professional RT - by specialty and profession
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