What is the real meaning and meaning of the concept of a forum. What is information culture
¿Cómo recuperar el deseo sexual?
Con las múltiples y variadas tareas con las que hay que lidiar a diario como trabajo, niños, estrés, estudios, familia, casa, entre otros, nuestra libido puede darse de baja con lo que peligra seriamente la plenitud de nuestra vida sexual y la satisfacción de la vida en pareja.
Muchas personas que ven su deseo sexual por los suelos, tienden a preocuparse más de la cuenta, lo que los ciega para poder observar posibles soluciones y entierra aún más ese erotismo que quedo tirado algún tiempo atrás.
¿Por qué decae nuestro apetito sexual?
El deseo es la fase de la respuesta sexual humana en donde aparece un estimulo que despierta nuestro erotismo, lo cual nos produce ganas de tener y mantener encuentros sexuales a solas o en compañía.
Existen algunos casos específicos donde es más frecuente que el deseo sexual se inhiba, como por ejemplo en las parejas que llevan mucho tiempo, o en personas que por entrar a ciertas etapas de la vida, dejan el sexo de lado.
En sí, la falta de deseo sexual puede estar desencadenada por muchos factores diferentes. Entre ellos cabe mencionar:
Problemas físicos como:
- Trastornos hormonales
- Infectiones vaginales
- Diabetes
- Parto reciente
- Dysfunctions sexuales
- Menopausia
El consumo de drogas, medicamentos o alcohol también inhibe la libido
Problemas Psicológicos, por ejemplo:
- Episodios traumáticos como una violación, un abandono, un desengaño amoroso
- Baja autoestima
- Ansiedad
- Angustia
- Depresion
- Estrés
- Cansancio
Problemas relacionados con la relación de pareja:
- Falta de atención
- Falta de communicación
- Monotonia
- Desinteres
- Terceros
¿Por qué es necesario recuperar el deseo sexual?
La vida sexual es necesaria en toda relación de pareja. No se trata únicamente de placer, sino también del sentimiento tan profundo de entrega hacia el otro.
Cuando por alguna razón, las ganas de disfrutar un encuentro íntimo están “apagadas”, se esta afectando la satisfacción personal y mutua. La pareja podría llegar a sentirse frustrada ante un rotundo y consecutivo “no quiero”, y por tu parte, te estarías privando de magnificos momentos.
Además, dejar al sexo en el olvido es el error número uno que conlleva al aburrimiento y acaba con el bienestar de la vida en pareja.
Cuando existen problemas mayores que no permiten gozar del sexo por un tiempo, ni modo, pero si las razones por las que te estas negando al placer no son tan graves, entonces debes buscar como recuperar el deseo sexual en tu vida.
La falta de sexo, por periodos largos, hace que se destruya la ilusión hacia la otra persona, y crea una montaña enorme de desinterés hacia el otro.
Hay que recuperar el deseo sexual para tener de nuevo los sentimientos de apego, de cariño y de unión con la pareja, que son tan necesarios para salir adelante como lo es el agua en el cuerpo.
Además, esta de por medio tu salud personal. El sexo juega un papel importante en tu salud mental y física. Los beneficios del sexo son tantos y tan importantes que no deberías terminar de disfrutar de ellos.
Consejos para recuperar el deseo sexual:
Para recuperar el deseo sexual, son muchas las soluciones que existen.
El sexo es una gran benefactor de la vida personal de cada quien y mucho más de la pareja como tal, por lo cual, vale la pena realizar todo aquello que nos sea necesario para traer el deseo de vuelta a la cama y que nos esforcemos en volver a despertar el erotismo en nuestra vida para vivir una sexualidad plena y sana.
A continuación te mostramos algunos consejos que te serán útiles para recuperar el deseo sexual, ponlos en práctica para que vuelvas a ser una persona sexualmente satisfecha:
- Una cita: Planeen una cita y actúen como si fuera la primera vez que van a salir juntos. Compórtense de manera que tengan que conquistar al otro, muestren sus mejores cualidades, coqueteen entre si, conózcanse y ríanse como si estuvieran conociéndose por primera vez. Seduzcanse, pero no lleguen al coito
- Visiten un lugar al que nunca hayan ido antes o tengan una salida muy diferente a lo que usualmente hacen. Lo nuevo los puede ayudar a encontrarse y a aflorar los sentimientos que se tienen.
- O bien, encuentren formas distintas de hacer las mismas cosas. Para recuperar el deseo sexual es muy importante que busquen y encuentren en cada actividad que realicen algo nuevo y diferente que los anime a seguir haciéndola.
Además, el buscar como disfrutar de algo de otra manera y descubrir nuevas cosas que les agradan de eso y que ni siquiera las habían notado, es una gran herramienta para la Union de la pareja.
Tomense unos minutos al final del día solo para conversar. Hablen sobre como estuvo el trabajo, como se sintieron, si paso algo inusual, algo cómico, no importa cual sea el tema, pero conversen solos (sin niños, sin teléfono, sin interrupciones).
Si hay algún problema entre ustedes, no lo saquen a relucir, dejen que este sea un rato para hablar amena e íntimamente con la pareja.
Busca algunos libros de autoayuda para apreciarte más, mírate en el espejo diariamente y saca a relucir tus mejores cualidades.
(TV Tropes link. You are warned.)
The above pictures show 3 of the histories the character has had, and they aren't even the tip of the iceberg.
He had a real name, of course, but he's still gone, and I doubt he even remembers it himself. Most tragically, in one of the Justice League issues, Martian Manhunter takes Batman's psyche to the one place no one would ever think to look for him (someone is being hunted) - the deepest, darkest place in the Joker's mind. In this there is only one person who is scared and alone, not sure where he is or who he is. This implies that this is all that is left of the Joker's sanity.
As mentioned in the above answers, there is no definitive answer. There is a point in the "A Death in the Family" storyline where Batman scares the Joker on the run, implying that he knows the Joker's real name, which he reveals, breaking the secret.
At the end of this storyline, it was revealed that Batman was bluffing and he still has no idea.
Closing we have arrived at the canonical answer in Batman: Legends of the Dark Knight issue #50, where a man, Melvin Reipan, is introduced as an idiot scientist who actually invents the Venom Joker. He refers to the Joker as "Cousin Jah" before cutting him off. Note that "Raipan" is "Napier" backwards, and the shape of the address suggests that the Joker may have the name Jack.
But of course, Melvin dies partly because of the problem, so the truth of the matter will likely never be known.
DC has claimed that the Joker's real identity will be revealed in issue #50 of DC Comics Justice League May 25, leading to the revelation in issue #42 where Batman sat on the Mobius lectern where Batman himself learned the identity but did not reveal it.
The answer there was... not actually a direct answer. Instead, he told him that there were three jokers, but he did not give him names.
In the 1989 Batman Film, Joker's real name is revealed as< сильный>Jack Napier. We know this because if you watch the first Batman movie, Batman has a file on Jack Napier because he sees the Joker on the way to where his parents died and recognized his face when he accidentally released the Joker at the chemical plant.
the original script explicitly refers to him by this name;
JACK NAPIER: Decent people shouldn't live here. They would be happier somewhere else.
JACK NAPIER is the right-hand man and main performer of BOSS CARL GRISSOM.
As well as showing us a copy of his pre-Joker "mug shot"; 
He was first an engineer who tried to become a comedian but failed. He then joined two criminals to make money until his pregnant wife died, so both criminals forced him to wear the red hood mask. He is then taken into an experimental vessel that permanently bleaches his skin white and turns his lips red and stains him with green hair. That this happened was enough to turn him into a criminal madman in Gotham, leaving him an enemy of Batman. However, they do not reveal his name. It was both a film and a comic. Actually, I saw this a couple of weeks ago. His name was Jack Napier, but the universe was DK.
What do we know so far? The Joker was a man who was forced to be the Red Hood in order to commit a crime, there is information that he may have been a criminal in the past. "There were three", well, what if the joker in the beginning was a criminal escaping from his past, then he decided to change his life by getting married and getting a normal life, but everything went wrong and after an accident, he became the Joker.
Their personalities? Jack Napier (criminal), Melvin Repian (comedian), Red Hood (the man who lost everything).
It's just a theory, but it makes sense.
1. What is the information society?A society in which the majority of workers are engaged in the production, storage, processing and sale of information, especially for its highest form - knowledge.
2. Formulate the criteria that determine the stages of the information society.
- increasing the role of information, knowledge and information technologies in the life of society
- an increase in the number of people employed in information technology, communications and the production of information products and services
- growing informatization of society using telephony, radio, television, the Internet, as well as traditional and electronic media
- creation of a global information space
- The demand for the information sector has increased significantly; people began to choose information professions rather than industrial ones.
- Also, informatization has changed the nature of work in traditional industries.
- The emergence of a developed market for information resources and services. The market includes sectors:
- business information (stock exchange, financial, statistical, commercial information);
- professional information (on individual professions, scientific and technical information, access to primary sources);
- consumer information (news, all kinds of schedules, entertainment information);
- education services, etc.
Information and communication technologies are actively developing every day. Since the World is becoming more progressive every day, information and communication technologies accordingly contribute to this and develop in step with the times. Based on this, in a few short years, society will become even more developed than it is today.
5. What is the information crisis of society? What are the ways of its predestination?
The information crisis of society is manifested in the fact that the flow of information that has poured into a person is so great that it is not available for processing in an acceptable time. He has the following predetermination paths:
- the information flow exceeds the limited human abilities to perceive and process information;
- a large amount of redundant information appears, which makes it difficult to perceive information useful to the consumer;
- Economic, political and other barriers are strengthened that prevent the dissemination of information (for example, due to secrecy).
Without freedom of access to information, the information society is impossible.
7. What is information culture?
Whoopi Goldberg, Shania Twain, Jamie Foxx are names that anyone with access to radio and television will immediately recognize. But has anyone heard of Karin Johnson, Eileen Edwards and Eric Bishop? For most people, these names mean nothing, which is strange, because these are the names that such famous and adored stars received at birth.
Whoopi Goldberg
Millions of people are familiar with the work of this incredibly talented and charismatic comedian. But at one time, relatives and friends knew her as Keryn Elaine Johnson.
The actress decided to change her name before traveling to Hollywood, where she was going to reveal her talents to the world. “Whoopie” is the comedian’s childhood nickname. The flamboyant woman has repeatedly joked that as a child she was called whoopee cushion, which translated sounds like “fart pillow.” There is no need to comment - the actress’s wonderful sense of humor has never failed.
As for the surname Goldberg, it was Whoopi’s mother’s idea - she believed that a Jewish surname would become a kind of talisman for her daughter and ensure her success. Well, the fame and popularity of the actress cannot be taken away.
Woody Allen
The famous film director, playwright, actor, founder of the “intellectual comedy” genre did not always have such a sonorous and memorable name. Until the age of 17, the future famous figure was called Allan Stewart Konigsberg. After graduating from high school, he changed his name to Haywood Allen.
The final version of the pseudonym was invented by the guy while working in Hollywood. This story is very interesting. Allen was working on the film Annie Hall, and the main director of the film at that time was completely fascinated by the girl Nancy Kreisman, who had a dog named Woody. This is how the name so recognizable today appeared.
Jennifer Aniston
The famous star of the cult TV series “Friends” was given the name Jennifer Lynn Anastassakin at birth. The name, of course, remains. But on the advice of the girl’s godfather (he, by the way, was also an actor), Jennifer’s parents decided to change their last name to a lighter and more American one - Aniston.
Tom Cruise
Who is not familiar with the works of a talented actor with incredible charm and piercing eyes? But not all fans of the celebrity’s work know that he was born under a different name - Thomas Cruise Mapother the Fourth.
But at the beginning of his career, the artist decided to abandon his father’s surname, with whom he did not maintain any relationship. He used his middle name as his new surname. This is how Tom Cruise appeared on the screens.
Winona Ryder
Present full name actresses: Winona Laura Horowitz. The artist decided to change it while working on one of her most successful films, “Girl, Interrupted.”
By the way, the pseudonym was invented spontaneously. When the talent agent asked the girl what name she should be on the list of artists, Winona's father was listening to his favorite Mitch Ryder album. So Horowitz turned into Winona Ryder. It is this name, as well as the graceful face of the actress, that is known to almost everyone today.
Kit Harington
Kit Harington, who became a worldwide celebrity thanks to one of the main roles in the series “Game of Thrones,” also slightly modified his name. The actor's full name is listed on the birth certificate as Christopher Catesby Harington.
Julianne Moore
Everyone is familiar with the works of this elegant, incredibly charming woman. But at birth she was given a different name - Julie Smith.
By the way, the history of the appearance of the pseudonym here is more pragmatic. The fact is that at the time of the woman’s registration in the Actors Guild, Julia Ann Smith was already on the list. The young actress was advised to change her name. To create the pseudonym, the woman used the names of her parents - Ann Smith and Peter Moore.
Meg Ryan
The now famous star also changed her name while registering with the Screen Actors Guild. Born Margaret Hira, she changed her paternal surname to that of her maternal grandmother. The result was a catchy, memorable name, which is now on the lips of millions of enthusiastic television viewers.
Emma Stone
In fact, many actors and actresses have to choose a pseudonym only because the name under which they were born turned out to be taken by some other famous figure. The same thing happened to Emma, née Emily. Unfortunately, at the beginning of her career, the girl learned that Emily Stone was already on the huge list of movie stars. At first, the aspiring actress considered the name “Riley,” but she didn’t really like the sound of it. This is how a beautiful girl with the charming name Emma Stone appeared on the screens.
Want to know the names of other movie stars?
In fact, the lists of actors/actresses who, for one reason or another, decided to take a pseudonym are simply huge.
- Nina Dobrev became incredibly popular thanks to her starring role in one of the most popular TV series of our time, “The Vampire Diaries.” The real full name of the actress of Bulgarian origin is Nikolina Konstantinova Dobreva. The pseudonym was intended to make the actress's name more American and easier to pronounce.
- Hulk Hogan is another one famous person. But the real name of the athlete and actor is Terry Bollea. It was under him that he began his wrestling career.
- The famous Carmen Electra was known as Tara Patrick until 1991. One day the girl met a prince who told her that she looked like Electra. This name “stuck”. The actress herself says that at first she was very embarrassed to use a pseudonym, because it sounded like the name of some superhero from comic books.
- But Bruno Mars was born Peter Gene Herandez. As a child, he was a small, fragile child, and his father often teased him, calling him Bruno after the strong, big wrestler Bruno Sammartino. As an adult, Peter himself decided to take this name for himself. As for the surname “Mars,” the young man explains it simply: many girls tell the actor that he seems to be from another planet.
- As you may have guessed, “Snoop Dog” is a pseudonym, and a very sonorous one at that. The real name of the world famous rapper is not so memorable. The boy was listed on his birth certificate as Calvin Broadus Jr.
Perhaps changing your name is sometimes the best option. After all, Hollywood is a place that attracts actors from all over the world with very different and sometimes unpronounceable surnames.
External forum and internal forum (Forum externum and Forum internum) are historically ecclesiastical concepts, from the field of religion.
By the external forum in Western Catholic literature is meant the court of the church, carried out on crimes formally, i.e., clothed in procedural forms, by the internal forum - the internal court of conscience, sometimes identified with the trial in confession, sometimes understood in a broader sense. If, for example, two persons who entered into marriage with the existence of a close relationship between them, unknown to outsiders, ask the bishop for a dispensation and if one is given, then it is called dispensatio pro foro in terno, although here we are not talking about confession and not about the sacramental absolution from sins. The parallelism between external and internal philosophy is historically explained by ancient church discipline, which required open confession of grave sins and associated open repentance with the latter as a necessary condition for resolution from the sin committed. Later, open confession of sins ceased to be practiced, and open court began to abandon the sacramental character; But in the West, the parallelism of open repentance for open sins and secret repentance for secretly confessed sins has become common: both have adopted the same goal - satisfaction of the truth of God offended by sin. In the East, there was also a view of confession as a F., a court, but here it depended not on the parallelism of secret and public repentance (the latter fell out of use very early), but on the transfer, especially by Balsamon, to confession of those canons that were designed for public repentance. See N. Suvorov, “The scope of the disciplinary court and the jurisdiction of the church during the period of ecumenical councils” (1884); his, “On the question of secret confession and confessors in the Eastern Church.”
A Roman forum (forum) is a quadrangular, elongated space limited on all sides, primarily a square or market, in or outside the city, as an independent market center for a number of surrounding populated areas. Such fora - commercial central points - and conciliabula - administrative central points - contributed to the transformation of areas that did not have an urban organization into a complex of urban units. Like a city square, the forum constitutes an essential component each Italian city, corresponding to the άγορά of the Greek cities. The number of city squares is not limited, and they all bear the name forum, but in each city there is a forum κατ έςοχήν - the main focus of the political, administrative and commercial life of the city, from which the rest of the squares are distinguished by various epithets indicating a special purpose or distinctive feature of the square.
The Roman Forum lay in a valley between the two most important hills in the early history of Rome, the Palatine and the Quirinal, extending in the form of an elongated rectangle from the N.W. on the S.E. On the N.W. it is closed by the steep slope of Capitol Hill, to the southeast. it has no natural border, expanding at the foot of the Quirinal and Palatine to the small hill of Velia. Its border on this side was not Velia, but the sacred site of the goddess Vesta, which lay in the lowlands in front of it. On the north side of the F. there was another area adjacent to it, which was a square that occupied part of the slope of the Quirinal - the so-called. comitium. Adjoining it from the west on the slopes of the Capitol was the sacred site of Volcanal. The F. Valley in ancient times was a swampy lowland through which a small river flowed, flowing into the Tiber; At first, this lowland was supposed to hinder rather than facilitate communication between the two settlements of the later territory of Rome - the Quirinal and Palatine settlements.
F. becomes the center of the city only from the time when both communities unite into one, with a common religious center on the Capitol, a political center on the Comitia and a commercial center on F. But even before this unification, F. was probably the place where exchanges took place between neighboring communities. Ancient history F. is unknown to us. True, the annals tell us a seemingly harmonious and consistent history of the emergence of buildings that later existed on F., but this apparent harmoniousness and consistency is destroyed at the first comparison of individual versions of the legend. A number of external and internal criteria make it possible to see in this traditional history of F. the same artificial construction as the ancient political and internal history of Rome appears to be. Nevertheless, this legend also reflects the views that existed in the last period of the republic, based partly on data that we have lost, which we have no right to reject in their main features. General scheme F.'s development was reproduced by them, in all likelihood, correctly, and only the associations with personalities and dates are fantastic and legendary. Among the oldest buildings or monuments of F., legend includes the sanctuary of Volcan in the western corner of F., the temple of Janus in the north. on its side, the lacus Curtius (pool of Curtius) on the area F. approximately in its center, the temple of Venus Cloacina on the northern side of F. and the most ancient buildings of the sacred site of Vesta at the eastern end of the square - the round temple of Vesta and the associated dwelling of the king (regia).
The kings from Tullus Hostilius to Tarquinius the Proud are credited with the old buildings that decorated the comitium - the meeting place of the Senate in the depths of the comitium, the tribune from which they spoke to the people, on the opposite side and next to it the so-called. graecostasis - a place where foreign ambassadors waited for access to the authorities. There was a prison adjacent to the comitia with Z. The kings are credited with building the greatest sewer on F., which canalized the river and diverted its water to the Tiber. At the same time, F. was surrounded by porticoes, and its long sides were lined with shops, the upper floors of which served as places from which the population of the city of Rome looked at the games taking place on F. The northern row of shops was called tabernae novae, the southern - veteres. In the era of the Republic, according to legend, the temples of Saturn and Castor or Castors appeared on the south side - both before the beginning of the 4th century; in the 4th century - Temple of Concordia, next to the Volcanal; At the same time, the tribune of the comitium is decorated with the bows of ships and receives the name rostra.
This is traditional history monuments F. There is no doubt that all the listed buildings belong to the most ancient monuments of the forum and arise before the time when historical, and not constructed, legend begins. Determining which of the listed buildings is ancient and which is newer is completely unthinkable, especially since only parts of the dungeon and, perhaps, parts of the cloaca maxima have been preserved in their old form. The same names were given to the completely rebuilt temples of Vesta, Concordia, Saturn, Castor and the neighboring region to the Temple of Vesta, some parts of which, existing now, are undoubtedly of republican origin, but chronologically closer to indeterminate origin. On the contrary, the undoubtedly ancient monuments excavated in modern times at the southern border of the comitium (5, on plan I) cannot be identified with the monuments of F. attested in literature.
The reliable history of F. begins in the 2nd century. BC In 184 BC. Porcius Cato, for the needs mainly of legal proceedings, erects next to the curia, on the western side of the comitium, a covered gallery - the Basilica of Porcius. In 179, the basilica of Fulvius and Emilieva appeared among the new shops, in 169 - almost opposite it, behind the tabernae veteres, Sempronieva. In 121, another basilica was built - Opimieva - between the Temple of Concordia and the dungeon. At the same time, the place where the ancient Roman street Via sacra entered the F. is decorated with the first triumphal arch in Rome - the Arch of Fabius. Around her, before 54, the so-called. puteal Scribonis - a kind of altar at a place struck by lightning. All these buildings, with the exception of the Arch of Fabius, of which perhaps a few architectural fragments have survived, disappeared without a trace, replaced for the most part by the grandiose buildings of Caesar and Augustus. The form in which F. existed during imperial times and in which we can imagine it on the basis of more or less accurate data, F. owes mainly to Caesar and Augustus.
First of all, the comitium became completely different. The Curia with the adjacent secretarium senatus and chalcidicum or atrium Minervae was moved closer to F. and coordinated with the F. Caesar that arose behind it. The rostra was moved to F. almost to the foot of the Temple of Concordia, rebuilt from the foundations. The long sides of F. were occupied by the colossal buildings of Caesar and Augustus, the southern side - a colossal covered portico (basilica Julia), the northern - basilica Aemilia. On both sides of the Julian Basilica, the temples of Saturn and Castor were rebuilt on the old sites. The monumental conclusion of F. from the north-east. On the side, under Augustus, the Temple of Julius was built, decorated with a tribune with ship bows (rostra). A monumental arch arose between the temples of Castor and Caesar, and thus his previous conclusion, the building of the sacred site of Vesta, was completely fenced off from F.
In the form given to the forum by Augustus, it remained until the last times of the Roman Empire. True, several buildings were added, but they only spoiled the ensemble without changing its main features. Under the Flavians, the Temple of Vespasian arose between the Temple of Concordia and the slope of the Capitol, covering the strict façade of the Roman archive - the tabularium. No less unsuccessful was the construction of the temple of Faustina, squeezed between the temple of Vespasian and the temple of Concordia. The remaining free corner between the Temple of Vespasian and the slope of the Capitol was filled with a portico dedicated to the twelve gods. Behind the Temple of Julia to the north. side F. in 141 AD. The temple of Faustina and Antoninus arose. Finally, in 203, the heavy arch of the North cluttered up the free space between the rostra and the curia (it is possible, however, that the older arch of Augustan times should have given way to it). Since that time, no new buildings have appeared on F.; life passes from here already in the 1st century. on the Field of Mars and on the neighboring imperial F.
With the fall of Rome, the old buildings of F. begin to collapse; only those in which Christian churches are sheltered are supported - S.-Adriano (curia), S.-Maria in Miranda (temple of Antoninus), S.-Maria antiqua, over which the recently broken S.-Maria Liberatrice, the church in the basilica grew Yulieva and others. Since the 11th century. F. is completely destroyed; Frangipani fortifications appeared on it, destroyed in the 13th century. After this, F. is overgrown with grass and covered with gardens. Since the 14th century Here valuable types of stones are mined for papal buildings, and less valuable marbles are burned into lime. In the XV and XVI centuries. A number of acts allow entrepreneurs to systematically use mining for stone mining. The best artists of that time used F. marbles for their works. Only Raphael and Ligorio raised their voices against this systematic destruction.
Of the popes, only Pius II and Leo X did not carry it out consistently. In 1536, many medieval buildings that cluttered F. were demolished for the ceremonial entry of Charles V, which somewhat hampered the activities of the destroyers, increasing the layer covering F.'s buildings; This layer increased even more thanks to the order of Sixtus V to transport garbage from the colossal buildings of this Pope to F. F. at this time was an overgrown wasteland on which a livestock market was located. Only the columns of the temples of Castor, Saturn and Vespasian, more than half hidden in the ground, the top of the column of Phocas and the tops of the arches of Titus and Severus, between which there was a luxurious alley of elms, indicated that here was once the center of life of ancient Rome. Scientific excavations began only at the end of the 18th century, although even earlier the results of excavations were utilized by numerous scientists and artists who had a keen interest in antiquity. They were carried out especially diligently by Pius VII and, during the French rule in Rome (from 1809 to 1813), by the prefect of the Tiber, Tournon.
The result was the excavation of almost the entire western side of F., mainly the temples of Saturn and Vespasian; a lot was done for the Temple of Castor and the Arch of Titus, which was freed from the buildings attached to it. Upon the return of Pius VII, work continued with the same energy. In 1827, Fea and the famous archaeologist Nibby were in charge of the excavations, conducting them mainly near the Temple of Concordia and at the site of the Julian Basilica. The work that stopped in 1835 was resumed in the forties and continued until 1854, then resumed only in 1870. The work for a long time was random and unsystematic: they dug little by little everywhere. Excavations began systematically only in 1870, first under the leadership of Rosa, then Fiorelli, during which the cleaning of F. was completed, with the exception of the northern part. sides. They dug deep, however, only up to the newest medieval pavement; Much was restored without sufficient care, observations were not carried out skillfully enough.
Nevertheless, the result of these excavations was the final establishment of the basic facts of F.'s topography thanks to the joint efforts of Italian and German scientists. Since 1884, work stopped again, but interest in F. was growing; New questions were brewing, mainly regarding the topography of the Republican F. and F. of the times of the first emperors, which could only be resolved through deeper excavations and more accurate observations. From time to time, partial excavations were carried out, mainly image., by German scientists (Hülsen at the site of the regia, Richter at the rostra, the temple of Caesar and the temple of Castor, also Degering), and the brilliant results of these works showed how much was left unfinished in the excavated part of F.
The return of Guido Baccelli to the post of Minister of Public Education opened the eyes of the Italian government to the need to continue the work. They resumed in 1898, under the talented leadership of engineer Boni, and immediately gave brilliant results. Work is still being carried out in almost all parts of F., but mainly on the not yet completely dug-out northern part. side, between the temple of Castor and the site of Vesta on one side, the Palatine on the other, on the site of the ancient regia, on the border of the comitium, at the curia, near the temple of Saturn and the Basilica Julia. Every day brings new discoveries.
Preserved monuments. Of the only ancient monuments preserved in F., there are two under that name. lapis niger (5 on plan I) - a square pedestal on which there are rectangular bases on both sides and a triangular three-stage platform (not yet completely excavated); on one of its corners there is a truncated cone of yellowish tuff.
A quadrangular cyprus is inserted into the steps of the platform, covered with an inscription running not across the sides, but along it. The inscription has not yet been deciphered, both due to the fact that the cypa is more than half broken off, and because its archaic Latin text, the oldest we have, has almost no analogues in other monuments. The meaning of the buildings is also not entirely clear. The most likely explanation is that of Enman (Journal of the Ministry of Public Education, 1901), who considers them a group of open sanctuaries of the most ancient form; their shape is similar to a number of ancient Greek sanctuaries. We cannot say anything precise about the size of the comitium or the distribution of buildings on it. Of the ancient buildings associated with it, only the dungeon (carcer) has survived, built over an ancient well and shaped like an irregular trapezoid. Of its rooms, only one is accessible, where the Church of St. Petra in carcere. In the 16th century the church of S.-Giuseppe dei Falegnami was built above it.
Next to the dungeon are the churches of S. Martino and S. Adriano on the north side of the F. The second is undoubtedly the newest curia of imperial times; the first was built partly on the foundations of the Secretarium Senatus. Between one and the other there was a portico (where Via Bonnella is now), behind the curia there was another portico with an apse, the so-called Chalcidicum or atrium Minervae. The Republican Curia, so called. Gostilieva, was rebuilt by Sulla in 80. In 52, Sulla’s curia burned down and was finally restored only after the death of Caesar (in 42), under the name curia Julia. This new curia was rebuilt by Domitian and then by Diocletian. Apparently, the current curia is the new curia Julia. It is still impossible to determine in what relation it was to the most ancient buildings. The narrow side of F. at the foot of the Capitol is occupied by the ruins of three buildings - the temples of Concordia and Vespasian and the portico of the 12 gods; between the first and second is a small aedicule of Faustina.
Only the foundations of the Temple of Concordia remain. The temple is distinguished by its original layout: a wide cella and in front of it a half narrower pronaos. From the Temple of Vespasian, in addition to the foundation, the base of the statue in the cella and three Corinthian columns with an entablature and part of the building inscription have been preserved; there is an old complete copy of it, testifying to the reconstruction of the temple by the North. The Porticus deorum consentium, under which there are 7 dark rooms, was found in its substructure (in 1834) relatively well preserved and recently restored. Opposite the curia, on the southern side of F., there are the ruins (foundation and 8 Ionic columns of the pronaos) of the Temple of Saturn, in the basement of which the state treasury was kept. The narrow staircase is due to the streets running at the foot of the temple. In front of the Temple of Saturn are the well-preserved remains of a rostrum decorated with ship prows.
Not far from them, near the black stone, is part of the balustrade of these rostra. - two reliefs depicting a solemn sacrifice and two acts of Emperor Trajan. Rear rostrum. substructures of area Concordiae were located. After the construction of the Northern Arch, these substructures were converted into a semicircular niche, at the ends of which stood the miliarium aureum of Augustus and Constantine's umbilicus Romae. The remains discovered by Boni behind the rostra (3 on plan I) can hardly be considered the remains of Boni's supposed Caesar's Tribune, moved to its present location only by Domitian. Between the rostra and the Basilica Julia, the foundations of the elegant Arch of Tiberius were discovered during the latest excavations. On the other side of the rostra stands the massive and heavy triple arch of the North, the reliefs of which depict the military exploits of the North and his sons.
The long sides of the F. are occupied almost entirely by the colossal foundations of two Augustan basilicas - Julian on the south and Aemilieva on the north. From the Yuliev colossal covered portico, only the foundation and several pylons in the west have survived. corner where in the Middle Ages the church of S. Maria de foro was located. The remains of the architectural parts of the Emilian Basilica and part of the foundation were found during the latest excavations. It turned out that from the street that ran at the foot of the basilica, several steps lead to the marble sidewalk in front of the basilica, and from there three steps lead to a portico carried by 16 pylons; At the rear, the portico is enclosed by a tuff wall. Transverse walls run from the pylons to the wall, forming a row of benches. Behind the wall is the basilica itself, with a marble pavement of three naves and two floors. Basilica in the 3rd and 5th centuries. was rebuilt; a separate building was added at the east end. In the basilica itself, the pylons were replaced by columns.
On the steps of the basilica there is a small round temple of Venus Cloacuia (8 on Pl. I), in which people saw the patroness of Roman sewers. Near the Julian Basilica, facing the F. area, are the foundations of the Temple of Castor with three surviving columns of the side portico. Between the Temple of Castor and the House of the Vestals, excavations in recent years have revealed a number of buildings and sanctuaries. Closer to the temple were located the bureau of the imperial administration, among other things, part of the water supply management, then a complex of monuments dedicated to the nymph Juturna - first of all (10 on plan I) the pool of Juturna with healing, according to the ancients, spring water; opposite the pool is the sanctuary of Aesculapius and other gods, mostly healers; further to the south (11 on plan I) there is an aedicule with a dedicatory inscription, an altar with the image of Turnus and Juturna (?) and a puteal above the well, which received water from the pool; there is a dedicatory inscription on it. The complex of buildings associated with the cult of Vesta was fenced off from F. by the temple of Caesar and the triple arch of Augustus attached to it, from which the foundations have been preserved.
Vesta’s site included her round temple, in which the sacred fire burned and Palladium was kept. In the foundation of the temple, the latest excavations have established a square well - probably a tavisa, where sacred objects were kept. Next to the temple there was a regia - the official seat of the great pontiff, of which only the foundations have been preserved. These foundations have a very irregular shape; Some of them belong to the building of the Republican period. On the other side of the temple stands the well-preserved House of the Vestals as it was built by Hadrian; in front of its entrance there is a small aedicule (12 on plan I). The house consists of a large courtyard decorated with statues of the great Vestals and Emperors, a reception hall at the back of the courtyard and a series of rooms on three floors. Opposite the region is the perfectly preserved temple of Antoninus and Faustina. Area F. was cut through in imperial times along two streets - Via Sacra, at the foot of the Julian Basilica, and Via ad Janum, at the Aemilieva. Some of the streets connecting F. were decorated with arches (Janus summus, medius, etc.). The foundations of such an arch are preserved on Vicus Jugarius (4 on plan I).
Area F. was occupied by a number of statues (the most characteristic of F. was considered the statue of Marsyas or a satyr with a wineskin on his shoulders, at the fig tree - the emblem of free citizenship, as revered as the she-wolf with twins at the comitia) and honorary monuments, from which Only honorary columns of later times have survived, between them a column erected or, better, re-dedicated by the emperor. Focke. F. was the focus of all - political, religious, commercial, and administrative - life of republican Rome.
Here the comitia met, the Senate met, the trial took place, the treasury and archives were kept, the most revered temples, the most luxurious shops were located; monetary and financial transactions were carried out here, a lively exchange game was going on; games of all kinds were given here, except horse racing, rare works of nature and art were exhibited; via Φ. triumphants passed by; here fathers and acquaintances accompanied new citizens who had just donned the toga virilis; Here the noble dead received their last farewells from their closest relatives. F. saw the bloody battles of the plebeians with the patricians, the Gracchanians with the Senate, heard the speeches of the Claudian Appians, the Gracchi, Drusus, Cicero, and Caesar. With the end of the republic, life in F. comes to a standstill. The emperors cover the memories of the past with their luxurious buildings that perpetuated their names; They attract people with both large space and great splendor on the Campus Martius and on their new imperial f. The first to appear was F. Julius Caesar, between 54 and 46 years old, behind the comitium, on a square purchased for more than 100 million. sisters Its center was the temple of Venus Genetrix. In front of the temple stood a statue of Caesar. From this F. only a few pieces of the wall have survived (A. on plan II) and architectural fragments sketched by humanists.
Much more has been preserved from F. Augustus, who was superior to Caesar in both size and decoration. Its center was the temple of Mars the Avenger. Area F. adjoined directly to the side façade of F. Caesar. The irregular shape of the site forced it to look like a rectangle, extended towards the end by two apses, between which the temple stood. The apses were separated from the F. area by porticos, where there were busts of heroes of the past with corresponding inscriptions - a gallery of glory. On both sides of the temple, Tiberius built the arches of Drusus and Germanicus. F. served mainly judicial purposes, but Augustus also transferred the most important acts of the military life of Rome here. From here the magistrates went to the provinces, here decisions about triumph were made, here young noble people joined the ranks of recruits. Significant parts of the apses and the temple (C on the plan) have been preserved from F. Behind the Basilica Aemilieva, F. Vespasian arose with the Temple of Peace as a conscious imitation of F. Augustus.
It was finished in 75 AD. No remains of this F. have survived, but the temple associated with it, the Sacrae urbis, has survived almost entirely, to which in the 3rd century. a rotunda was added, dedicated to Romulus, the son of Maxentius, and then to Constantine. The narrow strip between F. Augustus and Vespasian was turned into F. Domitian. This one was completed by F. Nerva and received the name of the passage (transitorium), since it was only about 40 m wide. There were temples of Minerva and Janus there. Until 1606, the remains of the F. and the temple still stood; now only two columns of the circumferential portico are visible (C on the plan). None of these f. can be compared with Trajan's f., completed in 113. It connected the Augustovsky F. and the Campus Martius with a series of luxurious buildings. Its general plan with its two large apses and six smaller ones resembles the plan of F. Augustus in an enlarged and complicated form. Entered F. from S.E. through the triumphal arch (H) and came to a wide area, the center of which was the equestrian statue of Trajan; on the sides and, probably, mainly in the apses, there were a number of sanctuaries, tribunals and bureaus. Across the F. there was a huge Basilica of Trajan with 5 naves behind the free area; behind it, in a small square, is Trajan’s Column, which still stands today, and on the sides there are two libraries (F and E); in the background stood the temple of Trajan, surrounded by porticoes.
The apse (O) and the middle part of the basilica (O), dug up by the French, have been preserved. In addition to those listed, Rome also had a number of shopping areas - markets; the oldest of them were F. cattle (forum boarium), y Tiber, with the temple and altar of Hercules, and vegetable (forum holitarium), next to the cattle, behind the gate of the Servian wall. For a summary of all the data on the Roman fora and an extensive literature on individual issues, see O. Richter, "Topographie der Stadt Rom" (2nd ed., Munich, 1901, 76-116 and 355-370), and Thedenat, "Le forum Romain et les forums impériaux" (P., 1900, 2nd ed.). The latest data are summarized in Hülsen’s “Topographische Jahresberichte”, renewed since 1902 (published in “Mittheilungen des d. arch. Inst., Röm. Abth.”). Other monuments of Roman times can be divided into two categories: squares that arose outside of Rome, and those that were created or rebuilt according to the Roman model. The Roman model was mainly imitated by the newly emerging provincial cities. A typical example of the first type of square is the main square of the semi-Os city of Pompeii, the second is the perfectly preserved square of the African municipality of Thamugadi (Timgad).
Greater F. in Pompeii was not the religious center of the Os city at the time of its inception; this was the meaning of the ancient temple on the Pompeian acropolis, the so-called. forum triangulare, in the southern part of the city. A large area in its western quarters, near the so-called. sea gate, served mainly for trade purposes. F. Pompeii lived with the city a long history of political freedom, political dependence, political slavery and, finally, political equality with Rome. The Temple of Apollo and the basilica (B and C on plan III), the oldest buildings of F. from pre-Roman times, serve the purposes of cult and trade of the free city; the temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva (N) testifies to Roman rule; temples of deified rulers (L and M) about political equality on the basis of general lawlessness.
The oblong rectangular area F. (A) is entirely paved with stone and surrounded on all sides by two-story porticoes, some double, some with an upper gallery, some without. The portico on the main short side is replaced by a temple of Jupiter and two arches on its sides. The porticoes were rebuilt when Pompeii was filled up; the old ones, built before Roman rule, were probably destroyed by the earthquake of 63. The center of the square was vacant; on the sides of the columns there were rows of honorary statues: at the very columns on the long sides there were pedestrian citizens (7), on the same sides somewhat deeper - horsemen (6), on the huge bases of the short side opposite the temple (1-3) - obviously , statues of the imperial house.
The large triumphal arch to the left of the temple (J) was also decorated with statues of the emperor and his family. F. was not passable and could have been completely blocked off, apparently in order to prevent access there during performances. The buildings surrounding F. are partly religious, partly public, partly commercial; There are no private buildings near it. The temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva dominates - the Capitol (H). Its front resembles the fronts of the temples of Caesar and Castor in Rome: it is a steep terrace with side entrances, and an altar on the terrace. There is no doubt that the terrace of the temple was the place from which they spoke to the people.
The temple was built either immediately before the conquest of Sulla, or immediately after it; preserved relatively well, right down to the bases of the cult statues. On the western side of F. there are two small rooms (F and F) opening onto the street - perhaps the city treasury; then room E - public amenities, portico D, probably intended for trade purposes, and the large temple of Apollo (C), in the niche of the wall of which the public measures of the city stood and still stand. The Temple of Apollo belongs to a very ancient time, as indicated by its deviation from the F axis; after the earthquake of 63 it was completely rebuilt. It was possible to enter the temple both from F. and from the street, onto which it faced on its short side. The entire temple is surrounded by two-story porticoes; in front of them is an altar and sundial on the column; the base of the deity statue still stands inside. In the courtyard of the temple there are 6 pedestals of different gods, statues of which are in the museum in Naples: Venus and Hermaphroditus, Apollo and Artemis, Hermes and Maia (the latter has not been found).
The rest of the western side is occupied by the front of the basilica (B), built at least before 78 BC: it is an oblong roofed building with three naves, with porticoes. In the depths of the basilica there is a tribunal; before entering it is called that. Chalkidiki. The basilica was illuminated through a colonnade placed on the low side walls. The height of this wall and colonnade was equal to the height of the internal columns. In the depths of the basilica, in the central nave, there is a pedestal of an equestrian statue. The first building to the east. side F. is the market for edibles, macellum (K). The market was built shortly before the earthquake. It is an open courtyard surrounded by porticoes. The entire southern side is occupied by shops; there are a number of them in the north. side, but do not go into the building, but onto the street (3).
In the middle of the building is a well, and above it is a kind of tent on columns placed on bases (7). This is where the fish we bought were cleaned. In the depths there is a large butcher's shop (4) and a hall for sacrificial feasts, probably some college entrusted with supporting the cult in the chapel (6); between them in the center is a chapel (5), where members of the reigning house were venerated; two statues of them - Octavia, the sister of Augustus, and Marcellus, her son - were found in the niches of the chapel. Next to the macellum there is a building wide open into the portico F., which was an open courtyard surrounded by niches - quadrangular on the sides, round in the depths (L). The niches were covered; May’s assumption is very likely that in the central one there was a sanctuary of the Lars and Augustus, in the side ones there were statues of the gods.
There is a small temple nearby (M); the altar in front of the temple represents a sacrifice in honor of the emperor, as shown by the oak wreaths on the sides of the altar. Judging by the construction, the building dates back to the time after the earthquake; only Vespasian could be a revered emperor. The next building (N), built by Eumachia, a public priestess, and her son in honor of the Concord of the reigning house (in the early years of Tiberius), consists, according to the building inscription, of a chalkidiki - entrance portico (1-2), a central two-story portico with niches in depth and a covered passage around the portico - crypta (4). In the central niche (3) a statue of Eumachia was found, dedicated by fullers; this gives the right to assume that the building was something like a central market for clothing and materials, a meeting place and activity for the college of fullons. In Chalkidiki, in the niches of the walls there were, following the example of Augustow F., statues and busts of famous people of the Roman past with corresponding inscriptions.
The last building is east. sides - a small yard (O), internal layout which makes it possible to assume that the people voted here. On the second narrow side of the F., opposite the Temple of Jupiter, there are three buildings with niches and rich interior decoration (PQR), probably the offices of the Pompeian magistrates and the meeting place of the municipal council. Their entire social life, both everyday and festive, was focused on F. Pompeii. Everyday life depict frescoes of one house, which depict F. and scenes from his life. There are various merchants, people reading posters, children playing, a public scribe, and a schoolchild being punished. Festive life is illustrated to us by reliefs of sacred content depicting solemn sacrificial processions and posters talking about the upcoming entertainment of citizens in F. For Pompeian F., see A. Mau’s book “Pompei in Leben und Kunst” (Lpts., 1900, 39-114) and his numerous articles in "Römische Mittheilungen". Several successful restorations are in Ivanov’s “Architektonische Studien”, vol. II, and in Weichardt’a, “Pompei vor ihrer Zerstörung” (1898). Bibliography - in the bibliographic reports of Mau in the same "Römische Mittheilungen".
Not like F. Pompey and Rome, over the course of several centuries, but immediately the F. of the Roman municipality in Africa arose - Thamugadi (plan IV). All of it grew immediately after Trajan granted the city the title of colony. The wide, almost square area (A) is surrounded by porticoes on all sides; at their foot, as in Pompeii, there are bases of statues, foot and horse, private individuals and emperors. In the wall of the portico, both inside and outside to the street, there are a number of rooms, some of which were probably occupied by shops, some, perhaps, by scholae - meeting places of the city curiae, organized collegiately. Around the F. area there are only a small number of buildings of a commercial and political nature and, it seems, not a single temple. This is because at Thamugadi the Capitol was given a separate prominent place. The main building of F. was the curia - C, on the walls of which lists of decurions of the 4th century were found. according to R. Chr.
The curia was built in 116 or 117 AD. Next to the curia, somewhat in front, a platform-tribune was pushed into the portico to speak with the people, decorated with two statues of Victoria. Behind it is a small quadrangular building, perhaps a temple (O).
Next to it is the Cl building, which, by analogy with Pompeii, can be considered the seat of the magistrates. On the side of the monumental entrance from the street with the entrance from the street portico there are luxuriously arranged amenities - E. Opposite the curia on the second short side of the F. there is a basilica (B), wrapped towards the F. with the long side. They entered it with F. On the other long (south) side there are 5 benches. On the short sides there are three apses, probably for tribunals, and a separate room, perhaps a temple to the ruling house, with a quadrangular niche. For details, see the large work Boeswillwald, Cagnat et Ballu, "Timgad" (Par., 1891 ff.); Thedenat, art. "Forum" in Daremherg et Saglio, "Dict. des ant." (1316-1318); Boissier, "L'Afrique romaine" (2nd ed., 175 ff.); Gsell, "Les monuments antiques de l'Algérie" (Paris, 1901, 121 words).
