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On March 14, our country celebrates Orthodox Book Day. This holiday was established by the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church on the initiative of His Holiness Patriarch Kirill and is celebrated this year for the sixth time. Orthodox Book Day coincides with the release date of Ivan Fedorov’s book “The Apostle,” which is considered the first printed book in Rus' - its publication dates back to March 1 (Old Style) 1564.
Birch bark letters
Today we would like to introduce you to the history of the emergence of book printing in Rus'. The first ancient Russian letters and documents (XI-XV centuries) were scratched on birch bark - birch bark. This is where their name came from - birch bark letters. In 1951, archaeologists found the first birch bark letters in Novgorod. The technique of writing on birch bark was such that it allowed texts to be preserved in the ground for centuries, and thanks to these letters we can find out how our ancestors lived.
What did they write about in their scrolls? The contents of the birch bark letters found are varied: private letters, business notes, complaints, business orders. There are also special entries. In 1956, archaeologists found there, in Novgorod, 16 birch bark letters dating back to the 13th century. These were the student notebooks of a Novgorod boy named Onfim. On one birch bark he began to write the letters of the alphabet, but apparently he quickly got tired of this activity, and he began to draw. Childishly ineptly, he depicted himself on a horse as a rider, striking the enemy with a spear, and wrote his name next to it.
Handwritten books
Handwritten books appeared a little later than birch bark letters. For many centuries they were an object of admiration, an item of luxury and collecting. Such books were very expensive. According to the testimony of one of the scribes who worked at the turn of the 14th-15th centuries, three rubles were paid for the leather for the book. At that time, you could buy three horses with this money.
The oldest Russian handwritten book, “The Ostromir Gospel,” was born in the middle of the 11th century. This book belongs to the pen of Deacon Gregory, who rewrote the Gospel for the Novgorod mayor Ostromir. “The Ostromir Gospel” is a true masterpiece of book art! The book is written on excellent parchment and contains 294 sheets! The text is preceded by an elegant headband in the form of an ornamental frame - fantastic flowers on a golden background. Inscribed in Cyrillic in the frame: “Gospel of John. Chapter A." It also contains three large illustrations depicting the apostles Mark, John and Luke. Deacon Gregory wrote the Ostromir Gospel for six months and twenty days - one and a half sheets a day.
Creating the manuscript was hard and exhausting work. The working day lasted in the summer from sunrise to sunset, while in the winter they also included the dark half of the day, when they wrote by candlelight or torches, and monasteries served as the main centers of book writing in the Middle Ages.
The production of ancient handwritten books was also expensive and time-consuming. The material for them was parchment (or parchment) - specially made leather. Books were usually written with a quill pen and ink. Only the king had the privilege of writing with a swan and even a peacock feather.
Since the book was expensive, it was taken care of. To protect against mechanical damage, the binding was made of two boards, covered with leather and having a fastener on the side cut. Sometimes the binding was bound with gold and silver and decorated precious stones. Medieval handwritten books were elegantly decorated. Before the text, they always made a headband - a small ornamental composition, often in the form of a frame around the title of a chapter or section.
The first, capital letter in the text - “initial” - was written larger and more beautiful than the others, decorated with ornaments, sometimes in the form of a man, animal, bird, or fantastic creature.
Chronicles
Among the handwritten books there were many chronicles. The text of the chronicle consists of weather (compiled by year) records. Each of them begins with the words: “in the summer of such and such” and messages about events that occurred this year.
The most famous of the chronicle works (XII century), describing mainly the history Eastern Slavs(narration starts from Flood), historical and semi-legendary events that took place in Ancient Rus' can be called "Tale temporary years" - the work of several monks of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra and, above all, Nestor the chronicler.
Typography
Books in Rus' were valued, collected in families for several generations, and were mentioned in almost every spiritual document (testament) among valuables and family icons. But the ever-increasing need for books marked the beginning of a new stage of enlightenment in Rus' - book printing.
The first printed books in the Russian state appeared only in the middle of the 16th century, during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, who in 1553 set up a printing house in Moscow. To house the printing house, the Tsar ordered the construction of special mansions not far from the Kremlin on Nikolskaya Street in the vicinity of the Nikolsky Monastery. This printing house was built at the expense of Tsar Ivan the Terrible himself. In 1563, it was headed by the deacon of the Church of Nicholas Gostunsky in the Moscow Kremlin - Ivan Fedorov.
Ivan Fedorov was an educated man, well versed in books, knew foundry, and was a carpenter, a painter, a carver, and a bookbinder. He graduated from the University of Krakow, knew ancient Greek, in which he wrote and printed, and knew Latin. People said about him: he was such a craftsman that you couldn’t find him in foreign lands.
Ivan Fedorov and his student Pyotr Mstislavets worked for 10 years to set up a printing house, and only on April 19, 1563 they began producing the first book. Ivan Fedorov built the printing presses himself, cast the forms for the letters himself, typed them himself, and edited them himself. A lot of work went into making various headbands and drawings of large and small sizes. The drawings depicted cedar cones and strange fruits: pineapples, grape leaves.
Ivan Fedorov and his student printed the first book for a whole year. It was called “Apostol” (“Acts and Epistles of the Apostles”) and looked impressive and beautiful, reminiscent of a handwritten book: in letters, in drawings and in headpieces. It consisted of 267 sheets. This is the first printed book published on March 1, 1564. This year is considered the beginning of Russian book printing.
Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets went down in history as the first Russian printers, and their first dated creation became the model for subsequent publications. 61 copies of this book have survived to this day.
After the release of “The Apostle,” Ivan Fedorov and his assistants began preparing for publication new book- “The Hourbook.” If “Apostle” was produced for a year, then “Chasovnik” took only 2 months.
Simultaneously with the publication of the Apostle, work was underway on the compilation and publication of the ABC, the first Slavic textbook. The ABC was published in 1574. She introduced me to the Russian alphabet and taught me how to compose syllables and words.
This is how the first Orthodox books and alphabet appeared in Rus'.
In Europe, he invented typography from typesetting. This meant that letters, numbers and punctuation marks were cast from metal and could be used repeatedly. And although a similar system was known to the Chinese around 1400 BC, it did not take root there due to the presence of several hundred written characters. And the method was forgotten. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg began printing texts in Germany in a new way. At first these were calendars or dictionaries, and in In 1452 he printed the first Bible. It later became known throughout the world as the Gutenberg Bible.
How did the first printing press work?
Separate printed characters, letters, were attached to hard metal in a mirror image. The typesetter put them into words and sentences until the page was ready. Printing ink was applied to these symbols. Using a lever, the page was pressed firmly against the paper placed underneath it. On the printed page, the letters were in in the right order. After printing, the letters were folded in a certain order and stored in the typesetting desk. This way the typesetter could quickly find them again. Today, a book is usually designed on a computer: the text is typed and sent directly from the computer to print.
Why was the invention of printing important?
Thanks to new printing methods, it was possible to print a lot of texts in a short time, so suddenly many people had access to books. They were able to learn to read and develop spiritually. Church leaders no longer determined who could gain access to knowledge. Opinions were disseminated through books, newspapers or leaflets. And they were discussed. This freedom of thought was completely new for those times. Many rulers were afraid of her and ordered books to be burned. And even today this happens with some dictators: they arrest writers and journalists and ban their books.
All books printed before January 1, 1501 are called INCUNABULAMI. This word is translated as “cradle,” that is, the infancy of book printing.
Few incunabula have survived to this day. They are preserved in museums and largest libraries in the world. The incunabula are beautiful, their fonts are elegant and clear, the text and illustrations are placed very harmoniously on the pages.
Their example shows that a book is a work of art.
One of the largest collections of incunabula in the world, about 6 thousand books, is stored in the Russian National Library in St. Petersburg. The collection is located in a special room, the so-called “Faust’s office,” recreating the atmosphere of a Western European monastery library of the 15th century.
Did you know that...
In ancient Rus' did they write on birch bark? That's what it's called outer part birch bark, consisting of thin translucent layers, easily separated from each other.
The first typewriter was made in the USA in 1867?
Is the number of books published all over the world growing year by year? True, this only applies to developed countries.
Test yourself.
1. In Germany, in the city of Strasbourg, in the central square there is a monument to Johannes Gutenberg. For what merits did grateful descendants perpetuate the memory of this German master?
2. Why are printed books from the 15th century called incunabula?
3. What new elements appeared in printed books in the 15th century?
4. Explain the meaning of the following concepts using reference books.
Big will help you Encyclopedic Dictionary(any edition)
letter
typeset printing (typing)
font
printing house
engraving
red line
Watch the cartoon about Johann Guttenberg:
http://video.mail.ru/mail/glazunova-l/4260/4336.html
Most people take printed materials for granted; it’s hard for us to imagine modern life if the printing press had not been invented. We would not have the opportunity to read books, newspapers, magazines. Posters, leaflets, brochures would not exist and would not come to us by mail. The printing house allows you to exchange a huge amount of information in the shortest possible time. In fact, the printing press is one of the most important inventions for modern man. He made a huge contribution to the development of society. How was the printing press invented and how did it influence the development of culture?
Life before the printing press
Before printing was invented, everyone written materials and the images were written and copied by hand. Were doing this certain people, who were allocated places for scribes at monasteries. This room in monasteries was called a scriptorium. There the writer could work in silence, first marking the page and then transferring onto paper the data from the book being copied. Later, decorative elements began to be applied to the pages of books. In the Middle Ages, books, as a rule, were only the property of monasteries, educational institutions or very rich people. Most of the books were religious in nature. Some families kept copies of the Bible, but this was very rare, and the family was considered lucky.
Around the end of the 1430s, a German named Johannes Gutenberg managed to find good way making money. At that time, there was a tendency to wear small mirrors on clothes and hats when visiting sacred places. The mirrors themselves had no meaning for him of great importance, but they gave him an idea of how large volumes of printed matter could be created. During the 1300s and 1400s, society gained a basic form of printing. It used images or letters printed on wooden blocks, which were dipped into paint and then transferred to paper. Gutenberg already had experience with printing, so he realized that by using cut blocks for it, he could make the process faster. He strove to reproduce large texts in large volumes. Instead of wooden blocks, he decided to use metal ones. The design he invented was called the "Movable Printing Press" because the metal letters could move to form different combinations to print words and phrases. Using this device, Gutenberg created the first printed book, which was the Bible. Today, the Bible printed by Gutenberg is of historical value.
The printing press had a device that arranged groups of blocks in the right order so that the letters formed words and sentences, constantly moving. The blocks were dipped in ink and paper was placed on them. When the paper was moved, letters appeared on it. These printing presses were manually operated. Later, by the 19th century, other inventors created steam-powered printing machines that did not require operator control. Today's printing presses are electronic, automated, and capable of printing much faster than any of their previous counterparts.
Gutenberg's invention caused a stir in society. Representatives of the upper social strata were not happy. For them, books written by hand were a sign of luxury and grandeur; they believed that books should not be subject to mass production. In this regard, printed books became primarily widespread among the lower strata of the population. Later, printing houses began to open, giving the world new professions. Printed texts have become a new way to distribute information to huge numbers of people quickly and cheaply. Scientists, who could disseminate their works, and politicians, who could interest voters through printed materials, benefited from this. The most important achievement that was achieved with the invention of the printing press was the opportunity to receive an education that many people previously could not obtain. The invention marked the beginning of new ideas and developments. Another contribution that the invention made was the distribution of printed materials and books in all languages among people.
A great cultural achievement was the beginning of book printing in Russia during the reign of Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century. The first Russian printer was Ivan Fedorov: born in the 20s of the 16th century, died on December 6, 1583 in Lvov.
The construction of the first state printing house in Moscow ended in 1563, and on March 1, 1564, the first book “Apostle” was published here, the technical and artistic execution of which was excellent. Subsequently, the printing house printed several more books of religious content, then its activities were interrupted. Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets, persecuted by church and secular reactionaries, were forced to leave their homeland and settle outside its borders, becoming the founders of book printing in Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine.
Afterword to "The Apostle", printed by Ivan Fedorov in Lvov. 1574. The first failure did not stop Ivan the Terrible, and he opened a new printing house in Alexandrovskaya Sloboda. But printing developed relatively slowly.
Along with Ivan Fedorov, among the first Russian printers one should also name Marusha Nefedyev, Nevezha Timofeev, Andronik Nevezha and his son Ivan, Anisim Radishevsky, Anikita Fofanov, Kondrat Ivanov. Many of them were both engravers and type foundries.
In 1803, when it was 250 years since the beginning of Russian book printing and 100 years since the publication of the first Russian newspaper, the historian Karamzin said: “The history of the mind represents two main eras: the invention of letters and printing.”
To call Ivan Fedorov the creator of the first Russian printing press is not enough.
He is a pioneer. The beginning of book printing in Russia is associated with his name.
The date and place of birth of Ivan Fedorov are unknown. He was born around 1520. The version about his origin from the Novgorod masters of handwritten books can be considered reliable. Historical information related to the origins of Russian book printing is as follows. The first printed Slavic books appeared in the Balkans, but these were Glagolitic letters, which in Russia in the 15th-16th centuries. there were no walks. By the end of the 15th century. the first four books in Cyrillic were printed in Krakow; two of them are dated 1491. The name of their printer is known - Schweipolt Feol. The Belarusian educator Francisk Skaryna began printing books in native language in Prague in 1517. Moreover, there are seven books known to have been printed directly in Russia in the 50s of the 16th century, that is, ten years before the first printed “Apostle”.
However, neither the place nor the date of publication of these books, nor the names of their printers have yet been established. “The Apostle” by Ivan Fedorov, published in 1564 in Moscow, is the first printed Russian book about which it is known who, where, why and when it was printed. This information is contained in the chronicle on the weekend, or title, as we now say, page of the book and in the afterword by Ivan Fedorov.
In this afterword, and in even more detail in the preface to the second edition of the Apostle, Ivan Fedorov sets out the history of the creation of the Russian printing house, the history of the troubles and adversities that befell the first printer of the Russian book.
The first printing house in Moscow was opened in 1.563, and on April 19 of the same year, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets were there.
Unlike Western European ones, the Moscow printing house was not private, but state enterprise, funds for the creation of the printing house were allocated from the royal treasury. The establishment of the printing house was entrusted to the deacon of the St. Nicholas Church in the Moscow Kremlin, Ivan Fedorov, an experienced bookbinder, book copyist and carver-artist. The printing house required a special room, and it was decided to build a special Printing Yard, for which a place was allocated near the Kremlin, on Nikolskaya Street. Ivan Fedorov, together with his assistant Pyotr Mstislavets, a Belarusian from Mstislavl, took an active part in the construction of the Printing House.
After construction was completed, the organization of the printing house itself began, the design and manufacture of the printing press, the casting of the font, etc. Ivan Fedorov fully understood the principle of printing with movable type from the words of others.
Perhaps Fedorov visited Maxim the Greek at the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, who for a long time lived in Italy and personally knew the famous Italian typographer Aldus Manutius. However, it is unlikely that anyone could explain to him in detail the technique of printing. Fedorov made numerous tests and eventually achieved success; he learned to cast high-quality type, type them and make impressions on paper. Fedorov was undoubtedly familiar with Western European printed books. But when creating the shape of his printed letters, he relied on the traditions of Russian writing and Russian handwritten books. . The first printed "Apostle" is the highest achievement of typographic art of the 16th century. Masterfully crafted font, amazingly clear and even typesetting, excellent page layout. In the anonymous publications that preceded the Apostle, the words, as a rule, are not separated from each other. The lines are sometimes shorter and sometimes longer, and the right side of the page is curvy. Fedorov introduced spacing between words and achieved a completely even line with right side pages. The book contains 46 ornamental headpieces engraved on wood (black on white and white on black). The lines of script, also engraved on wood, were usually printed in red ink, highlighting the beginning of the chapters. The same role is played by 22 ornamental “cap letters”, that is, initial or capital letters. Ivan Fedorov used a completely original method of two-color printing from one printing plate, which has never been found anywhere else.
In 1565, in Moscow, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets published another book - “The Book of Hours”. Ivan Fedorov and his comrade in Moscow were very prominent and respected people. But the oprichnina introduced by Ivan the Terrible caused them great concern. “For the sake of envy, many heresies were plotted against us,” Ivan Fedorov later wrote, explaining his and Metislavets’s departure to Belarus, which then belonged to the Polish Lithuanian state. So Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets published only two books in Moscow, but this is quite enough for Ivan Fedorov to forever remain the first printer of Rus'. Having ecclesiastical rank deacon, Ivan Fedorov took from Moscow not only his wife and children, but also the tools and materials necessary to continue printing.
Soon Fedorov and Mstislavets were able to resume work in Lithuania, on the estate of Hetman Khodkevich in Zabludov. Here in 1569 the “Teaching Gospel” was printed. Unlike the Moscow ones, this book was not liturgical and was intended for home reading. From Khodkevich's estate, Ivan Fedorov moved to Lvov in 1572, despite the fact that Khodkevich, as a reward for his work, gave Fedorov a village where the pioneer printer could engage in farming and live comfortably. But Fedorov abandoned settled life, considering his printing activity an apostolic ministry. (Apostles, which means “sent” in Greek, were the disciples of Christ whom he sent throughout the world to tell about himself.)
In Lvov, on February 14, 1574, the first accurately dated printed book in Ukraine, the so-called Lvov “Apostle”, was published; the font and some of the headpieces in this book were borrowed from the Moscow "Apostol", but the endings and patterned initials were made anew. In the same year, in Lvov, Ivan Fedorov first published a book for Russian children - "ABC".
The second edition of the ABC was published in 1576 in the city of Ostrog, where Fedorov was invited by Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky. In 1580 Fedorov released New Testament e Psalter in a small format, easy to read. This is the first book in Russian history that is accompanied by an alphabetical subject index.
But the real feat of Ivan Fedorov was the colossal work on the complete Slavic Bible. This gigantic Work occupied 1256 pages. Fedorov and his assistants used not only the Greek, but also the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, as well as Czech and Polish translations. And the basis was the text of the Gennady Bible.
It is to this “Ostrog Bible,” as historians now call it, that the Slavic biblical text that exists in modern editions dates back. Only an extraordinary person was capable of such heroic work, and for the first time in the history of Russia, and Ivan Fedorov was just that. He was fluent in several languages - Greek, Latin, Polish. He was well versed in the intricacies of Church Slavonic grammar.
The Ostroh Bible, published in 1580-1581, was Fedorov’s last printed work. After the Bible, Fedorov released only Andrei Rymsha's "Chronology" - the first work of a secular nature printed in Ukraine. Prince Konstantin Ostrozhsky lost interest in Fedorov’s publishing activities, and the pioneer printer again had to look for funds to continue his life’s work.
During these years, Ivan Fedorov invents a collapsible cannon and is engaged in
improvement of hand bombards. In search of a customer, he sets off from Lvov on a long and difficult journey for those times - to Krakow and Vienna, where he meets Emperor Rudolf II and demonstrates his invention to him. Rudolf II was completely satisfied with it, but he refused the conditions put forward by Fedorov. Then Ivan Fedorov wrote a letter to the Saxon Kurfürth August: “...So, I master the art of making folding cannons... each and every cannon of this kind can be disassembled into separate, strictly defined parts, namely fifty, one hundred and even, if necessary, into two hundred parts...” The letter speaks unclearly about the invention; one can only judge that it was a multi-barreled mortar with interchangeable parts.
Returning to Lvov, Fedorov fell ill and on August 3, 1583, “fell ill to the point of death.” Ivan Fedorov died in one of the suburbs of Lviv, which is called Podzamche. He died in poverty, without the funds to redeem the printing property and printed books pledged to the usurer.
He was buried in the cemetery at the Church of St. Onuphrius, the temple belonged to the Lviv Orthodox Brotherhood. A tombstone was placed on Fedorov’s grave with the inscription: “Drukar of books never seen before.” These words contain perhaps the most exact specification great deed accomplished by Ivan Fedorov.
Not much is known about the life and work of Ivan Fedorov. What we know about him is known from the books published by the master, or rather from the afterwords to them, which he wrote for each of his publications. The first accurately dated printed book in Russian, “Acts of the Apostles” (“Apostle”), was published in Moscow at the state printing house. This great event for Rus' took place in March 1564. By order of Ivan IV, a large state printing house was created in Moscow in 1553 - the Sovereign Printing House. Its leader was the deacon of the St. Nicholas Church in the Moscow Kremlin, Ivan Fedorov.
Work on the book continued from April 19, 1563 to March 1, 1564. The publication of the “Apostle” marked the beginning of book printing in Rus'. At the same time, a number of publications of the “anonymous” printing house that worked in Moscow in the early 50s are known. XVI century, and, thus, Ivan Fedorov should be considered only the continuer of book printing in Russia. In the publication and design of the book, Ivan Fedorov was helped by Pyotr Timofeev Mstislavets (i.e., a native of the Belarusian city of Mstislavl). The book is printed in the “old printing” style, which was developed by Ivan Fedorov himself on the basis of the Moscow semi-statutory letter of the mid-16th century, and is richly ornamented. At the end of the “Apostle” there was a detailed afterword, which described who printed, where, how and when the Moscow printing house was founded. In October 1565, Ivan Fedorov’s next book, “Chasovnik” (“Book of Hours”), was published in two editions. The “Book of Hours” was a collection of prayers that was used during worship; It was also used to teach children to read and write in Rus'.
In 1566, with the consent of Tsar Ivan IV Vasilyevich, the printers, taking with them some of the printing materials, left Moscow forever and moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The reason for his departure was attacks from the zemstvo clergy and boyars, as Fedorov himself later wrote in the preface to the Lvov edition of the “Apostle” in 1574; he experienced persecution from “many bosses and priests.” Another reason for the departure of printers from Moscow was, in the face of the threat of creating a union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with the Kingdom of Poland, the spread of the printed word for the purpose of Orthodox propaganda in Belarus and Ukraine. In 1569, on the estate of the Great Hetman Grigory Aleksandrovich Khodkevich, Zabludov, printers at the expense of the latter founded a new printing house, where the “Teacher's Gospel” (1569) was printed - a collection of patristic words and teachings for Sundays and holidays and the “Psalter” with the "Speaker of Hours" (1570). In these books, Ivan Fedorov for the first time called himself “Ivan Fedorovich Moskovitin”, i.e. a native of Moscow. The last book was published by Ivan Fedorov alone, since Pyotr Mstislavets left for Vilna. From Lithuania, having experienced “all kinds of troubles and hardships, the worst,” Ivan Fedorov moved to Lvov. Here, in 1574, he published “The Apostle” and the first Slavic printed textbook, “ABC” (only one copy of the edition of “ABC” has survived, which is currently stored in the library of Harvard University in the USA).
Subsequently, Ivan Fedorov founded a new, fourth, printing house on the family estate of the Kyiv governor, Prince Konstantin Konstantinovich Ostrozhsky - Ostrog. Here he published five editions - "The ABC" (1578), "The New Testament" and "The Psalter" (1580), an alphabetical index to the New Testament. “The book is a collection of the most necessary things in short for the sake of finding the New Testament in the book according to the words of the alphabet” (1580), together with Gerasim Smotritsky - a wonderful monument of world typographic art, the first complete Slavic Bible, called the “Ostrozh Bible” (1580-1581 .) and the first printed calendar-leaflet on two pages "Chronology". Compiled by the Belarusian poet Andrei Rymsha, a close associate of Prince Radziwill (1581). Ivan Fedorov’s books amaze with their artistic perfection; many of them are now stored in museums and private collections in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv and Lvov, as well as in Poland (Warsaw and Krakow), Yugoslavia, Great Britain, Bulgaria and the USA.
Typography- the process of creating printed materials. The term is usually used in a historical context.
China is considered the country where printing was invented. There in 1040-1048. A blacksmith named Pi Shen used a unique typesetting process, carving hieroglyphs into blocks of clay, firing them, composing them into text on a metal plate, and attaching them to the plate with resin. However, clay letters wore out quickly and did not give a clear imprint. This method has not found widespread use, since Chinese writing is complex and consists of many characters. In 1392, the Koreans achieved great success by using copper type to reproduce texts. In 1403, Emperor Tai Tsung, in order to improve public education, ordered the printing of Korean books using such characters.
The history of European book printing dates back to the 15th century, when the prototypes of printed publications appeared. These first books, mostly primitive illustrations with small textual explanations for the illiterate consumer - “Bible of the Poor” (“Biblia pauperum”), “Mirror of Human Salvation” (“Speculum humanae salvationis”) or “The Art of Dying” (“Ars moriendi”) , were prints from solid boards (woodcuts).
Woodcut books were in wide circulation, but had an indirect relation to book printing itself, since printing from boards could not provide a large number of copies, and the wooden form quickly wore out. However, it is worth noting that books were published using woodcut printing until 1530.
Guttenberg and his followers
The invention of printing, i.e. printing from a set consisting of individual letters belongs to the German typographer from Mainz - Johann Gutenberg. He spent a significant part of his life in Strasbourg, where he was engaged in polishing semi-precious stones and mirrors. In 1448, Gutenberg appeared in Mainz, where, borrowing 150 guilders, he continued to work on casting type and constructing a printing press. The year of the first printed edition remains a matter of debate - dates are given from 1445 to 1447. The first editions, attributed to Johannes Gutenberg, were small calendar leaflets and textbooks.
The year of birth of European newspaper periodicals is considered to be 1609 (although some researchers call 1605). Its place of origin was Germany. The newspaper, which began with the words "Relation: Aller Furnemmen", was printed in January 1609 in the city of Strasbourg, and contained news from Cologne, Antwerp, Rome, Venice, Vienna and Prague. The editor-publisher of this weekly was the typographer Johann Carolus, who had previously been involved in compiling handwritten news sheets.
Also in 1609, Avisa Relation oder Zeitung, another weekly newspaper published by Luca Schulte, appeared in Augsburg. The Italian word “avviso”, which found its way into the German press, indicates a genetic connection between the first German weekly newspapers and their Venetian prototypes. The format of German publications and the form of news presentation also resemble Venetian avvisi.
The first printed newspapers did not have a clearly defined name. The place of publication and the name of the editor-publisher were usually not indicated. The location of the news material depended not on the degree of importance of the event being described, but on the day the information was received. The news itself was practically not commented on and presented without any headings; political events were interspersed with not always reliable sensations.
Beginning in 1609, weekly printed periodicals began to spread rapidly throughout Europe: in 1610, the printed weekly Ordinari Wohenzeitung began to be published in Basel; in 1615, Frankfurt am Main and Vienna joined Basel. In 1616, the newspaper appeared in Hamburg, in 1617 - in Berlin, in 1618 - in Amsterdam, in 1620 - in Antwerp, Magdeburg, Nuremberg, Rostock, Braunschweig, Cologne.
As for Cologne, in this city, starting from 1588, Michel von Aitzing published twice a year a selection of political and military events for six months under the name "Relatio Historica" ("Historical Bulletin") and sold his publication in the fall and spring in Frankfurt book fairs. In 1594, another publication appeared in Cologne, covering events over the past six months. “Mercurius Gallo Belgicus” (“Gallo-Belgian Mercury”) was published in Latin and was known far beyond the borders of Germany.
By 1630, weekly newspapers appeared in 30 European cities. The rapid spread of printed periodicals, and in the period from 1609 to 1700. In Germany alone, experts recorded the circulation of about 200 newspapers, which was explained by the increased level of printing, the growth of cities and the increased demand for various information from the urban population, the main consumer of this type of printed products.
However, the process of the appearance of the first newspapers in a number of countries was hindered by strict censorship procedures that regulated the appearance of printed materials. The widespread introduction of the institution of preliminary censorship, which appeared almost immediately after the invention of printing, became the state’s reaction to the uncontrolled spread of ideas, opinions and information.
It was the effect of censorship restrictions that led to the fact that the first printed newspapers in England and France appeared relatively late. Under conditions of severe censorship pressure, the role of a kind of “catalyst” for the emergence of English and French newspapers was played by Holland, which in the 17th century was the most liberal country in Europe.
A well-established printing business and skillful use of the advantages of “ideological liberalism” allowed Holland to make considerable profits from the sale of printed products to neighboring countries (England, France), where they were in great demand.
In September 1620, Caspar van Hilten (publisher and editor of the first Dutch newspaper "Courante uyt Italien, Duytsland, etc." - "News from Italy, Germany, etc.") began to translate his own publication into French and distribute it to territory of France under the name "Courant d" Italic & d "Almaigne, etc." Apparently, van Hilten's venture was a commercial success.
In December of the same 1620, the Dutch engraver and cartographer Pieter van de Keere, who lived for several years in London, began publishing in Amsterdam on English a newspaper that presented an almost literal translation of the Dutch "couranto". The first issue of Keere, dated December 2, 1620, came out without a title and began quite remarkably: “The new typings out of Italic are not yet com” - “Fresh news from Italy has not yet been received.”
From the second issue this publication has the title “Corrant out of Italic, Germany, etc.” The news contained in the newspaper printed in Amsterdam could hardly be called fresh, but it gave readers an idea of the events taking place in Europe.
8. The emergence and development of the institution of censorship in Western Europe.
Censorship(lat. censura) - control by the authorities over the content and dissemination of information, printed materials, musical and stage works, works of fine art, films and photographs, radio and television broadcasts, websites and portals, in some cases also private correspondence, in order to limit or prevent dissemination of ideas and information considered undesirable by this government.
Censorship also refers to the bodies of secular or spiritual authorities that exercise such control.
According to Doctor of Historical Sciences T. M. Goryaeva [Note. 1], censorship arose at the moment when a group of people with power and property began to impose their will on others. The word “censorship” itself originated from ancestry. census, which meant in ancient Rome the periodic assessment of property to divide people into classes. The second meaning was associated with the division according to the right to enjoy the privileges of citizenship. Thus, according to Goryaeva, the ancient censor monitored the reliability of the political orientation of citizens.
Censorship became an attribute of state and religious power in the era of antiquity. The Brief Jewish Encyclopedia cites as an example the destruction of the scroll of Jeremiah's prophecies (608 - 598 BC) by the Jewish king Joachim. Encyclopedia Britannica notes that in Athens (480 - 410 BC) the books of the philosopher Protagoras on the Gods were burned. Plato proposed introducing a set of prohibitions to protect people from the harmful influence of works of art. He became the first thinker to substantiate the need to combine artist self-censorship with preliminary public censorship. Subsequently, censorship and repression of free thought became an integral part of the policies of the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. In 213 BC. e. Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huang ordered the burning of all books except medical, agricultural and scientific ones to protect the empire from the perceived dangers of poetry, history and philosophy.
The first censorship lists date back to unacceptable apocryphal books, a list of which was compiled in 494 AD. e. under the Roman bishop (pope) Gelasius I. Preliminary censorship of books was first introduced in 1471 by Pope Sixtus IV. This was followed by similar decisions of Pope Innocent VIII (1487) and the Lateran Council (1512).
Later, under Pope Paul IV in 1557, the Index liborum prohibitorum was issued for the inquisitorial tribunals. This list was only canceled in 1966. And in 1571, Pope Pius V established the Congrecatio Indicis, according to which no Catholic, under pain of excommunication, could read or keep books that were not included in the list specified by the pope. Not only banned books, but also their authors were often burned at the stakes of religious censorship. The period of the Church Reformation was also characterized by intolerance of dissent. European society of that time was infected with aggressive xenophobia, and the authorities supported church censorship with administrative, judicial and forceful measures.
Subsequently, critics of censorship appeared, for example Pierre Abelard, Erasmus of Rotterdam and Michel Montaigne, who began to express doubts about its usefulness and expediency. Supporters of a strict form of censorship were Bernard of Clairvaux, Martin Luther and Tommaso Campanella. During the Enlightenment, philosophers and politicians proclaimed the ideas of freedom of speech, press and assembly. British philosopher Thomas Hobbes believed that if a church prohibition is not confirmed by state law, it is nothing more than advice. The poet John Milton, speaking in the English Parliament on June 16, 1643, for the first time specifically examined the features of censorship as a public institution. His critical treatise "Areopagitica" brought closer the abolition of preliminary censorship in England, which occurred in 1695.
9. The origin and development of political journalism and its role in public life.
PUBLISHING(from the word public, social) - that area of literature that deals with political, social issues with the aim of promoting certain views among a wide circle of readers, creating, shaping public opinion, and initiating certain political campaigns. The origin of journalism dates back, of course, to the era when mass readers first appeared, as well as the means to reproduce literary works in large quantities, i.e. to the beginning of the capitalist period in Europe, with the influx of new ideas corresponding to new social relations, with the development of urban life and trade, with the advent of a number of discoveries and inventions, and first of all - printing. Journalism is the child of the young, emerging bourgeoisie and is developing in Europe along with the development of bourgeois relations. Therefore, the birthplace of journalism is Italy, where, along with the first banks, the first newspapers appeared and where, during the Renaissance, the first literary form of journalism arose - pamphlet, i.e. a small pamphlet of brightly propaganda content, dealing with some topical, pressing issue or attacking particularly politically hated individuals and groups.
The end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times, the era of the collapse of feudalism, with its subsistence economy, economic and spiritual stagnation, is a deeply revolutionary era. And like all subsequent revolutionary eras, it creates extensive journalistic literature and, first of all, pamphlets. In addition to a number of Italian humanists who opposed the Catholic Church, especially
German humanists became famous at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries Erasmus of Rotterdam with his "Praise of Folly" and Reuchlin- with his “Letters of Dark People,” which ridiculed the ignorant monks, the most hated and reactionary social group of that time. The great social movement known as the Reformation, which stirred up huge masses of the lower strata of the population, first created journalism for the people, popular, rough in form, but often caustic and witty. Poisonous pamphlets of a polemical nature were exchanged between the leaders of the moderate reformation - Luther with the apostle of heretical communism and the leader of the peasant uprising of 1525 - Foma Muntzer, who in his brochures and appeals cursed both the clergy and the authorities.
The pamphlet developed especially during the era of the first English revolution of the 17th century. The great English poet Milton wrote a pamphlet for the first time in history in defense of freedom of the press. At the same time, the famous pamphlet “Killing - no murder” appeared, justifying the execution of the king. A number of pamphlets were written by the democrat Lilborn and the communists - the “true Levellers”. Since then, the pamphlet has become a favorite spiritual weapon of the English opposition parties and provided examples of high propaganda skills, especially during major political campaigns, such as the fight for electoral reform and the repeal of the Corn Laws in the first half of the 19th century, the fight for the liberation of Ireland or Chartism. The pamphlet (along with political newspapers) also achieved remarkable development during the era of the Great French Revolution, which opened with the pamphlet of Abbot Sieyès “What is the Third Estate”, reached its apogee in the newspapers of Marat and ended with Babeuf’s “Tribune of the People”. During the restoration era, the French Shchedrin became famous for his satirical pamphlets against the returning nobles and the royal administration - Paul Louis Courier. The pamphlets of socialists of the 30s and 40s are also remarkable. After that pamphlet everything
is increasingly being replaced in France by newspaper journalism.
In Germany, before the revolution of 1848, poets became famous as publicists Heine and critic Berne. But then he undoubtedly took first place Karl Marx, who, in his pamphlets and newspaper articles, knew how to combine brilliant literary talent, wit and caustic, killing sarcasm with deep and clear theoretical analysis. That is why his pamphlets are both propaganda and deeply scientific works. The first such work was the “Manifesto of the Communist Party” by Marx and Engels. Then Marx’s articles in the Neue Rheinische Gazeta, “The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte,” where, with devastating satire and mockery of the hero of the 1851 coup, a class explanation of the very possibility of this coup is given, and finally, “ Civil war in France,” the manifesto of the First International, issued immediately after the pacification of the Paris Commune.
Lassalle, who wrote his speeches and distributed them in the form of pamphlets, was also a great master of the scientific propaganda pamphlet in Germany.
