Prince, warriors and militias. A squad is a princely army or a public organization
We would look in vain for strictly (legally) defined social relations and institutions, i.e. harmonious state order in Rus' in the pre-Mongol era. Her social order bears the stamp of uncertainty and formlessness in the sense of our real concepts of state life. Social strata are still in a period of fermentation and have not frozen within certain boundaries. Written law and legal regulations barely penetrate into people's life; customs and traditions inherited from ancestors still dominate all its aspects; but at the same time they gradually yield to the influence of the Greek Church and other principles brought from outside or arising from collisions and crossings with foreigners. And yet in this Rus', divided into several lands and subdivided into many volosts, we already see the solid foundations of state life and clearly marked steps of the social ladder.
The first and most solid foundation is the patrimonial hereditary princely power, without which almost all Russian people from time immemorial could not imagine the existence of their land. We see that the immoderate autocracy or tyranny of some princes aroused displeasure and even revenge on the part of the vigilantes or the popular crowd. But at the same time, the very concept of princely power, as a necessary social connection, not only did not suffer, but sometimes, with the help of the church and scribes, rose to an even clearer level of consciousness, especially after the turmoil of anarchy. Curious, for example, are the Russian chronicler's arguments about the murder of Andrei Bogolyubsky and the rebellion of the mob, who beat his children and swordsmen and plundered their houses, being embittered against them for various extortions and oppression. “They did not see what was said: where there is law, there are many insults,” notes the chronicler. “The Apostle Paul writes: every soul obeys the authorities, for the authorities are created by God; by nature, for the king of the earth is like every man, but by authority elevate the dignity, as God. Speech of the great Zlatustets: even whoever resists the power, resists the law of God; for the prince does not wear a sword, for he is God’s servant.” This is when our church scribes began to transfer the Byzantine theory of royal power to Russian soil and apply it to their princes.
Old Russian prince with his retinue
The prince and his squad - these two inextricable foundations of state life - continue to serve as its representatives and guardians in this era. The prince is inseparable from his retinue; with her he “thinks,” or consults, about all matters, goes to war, to hunt, on a detour or in the wild; he feasts and revels with her. The squads of our ancient princes came from that energetic Slavic tribe that lived on the middle Dnieper, in the Kiev-Chernigov region, and called itself Russia. Together with the descendants of old Igor, these squads spread to other regions Eastern Europe, united them and gradually told them their name of Rus' (which received a broad meaning). Little by little they formed into a special military class, which, however, did not have a closed character for a long time; As new conquests took place, it accepted both local Slavic squads and military people from foreigners. In addition, the princes willingly accepted foreigners into their service, such as the Varangians, Germans, Poles, Ugrians, Polovtsians, Khazars, or Circassians, Yasses, or Alans, etc. But these foreigners, entering the environment of the squad, did not in the least violate it of a purely Russian character and often became the founders of noble Russian families. The squad received half of its maintenance and salary from the prince in money, food supplies and other natural products, which it collected for him in the form of tributes. In addition, already in early times vigilantes receive land plots and lands and own villages. Families of senior warriors, or boyars, concentrating significant land property in their hands, and sometimes in different regions of Rus', naturally lay the foundation of the upper class in Rus', or the patrimonial landowning aristocracy.
With the division of Igor's descendants into separate branches that had the character of local dynasties, the warriors also became more and more settled as a military, governmental and property class. The rivalry of appanage princes and the desire to have the strongest and most loyal squad around them, of course, increased the importance and rights of the warriors. They considered themselves military people, people who serve whomever they want; If one prince doesn’t like it, they move on to another. It should not be thought, however, that such transitions actually happen often. On the contrary, the loyalty of the squad to its prince, according to popular concepts, was one of its first qualities. The transition was also complicated by the fact that it was accompanied by the deprivation and alienation of what was granted by the prince real estate. The sons of warriors usually became the same faithful servants of the prince or his successor as their fathers. The Old Russian squad was a military class that emerged from the people, and not a detachment of some mercenaries like the Varangians, Germans, Polovtsians, etc. This is partly indicated by the favorite princely saying that was current in Rus' in the 11th and 12th centuries, attributed to Vladimir the Great: “If only there were a squad, with her I will get silver and gold."
Otherwise, the prince would have said the opposite: “There would be silver and gold, and with it I would get myself a squad.” With money it was indeed possible to get yourself a squad, but a hired one, and mostly from a foreign tribe.
The size of the salary in those days can be judged by the following indication in the chronicle, dating back to the first period of the Tatar yoke. Complaining about the increased luxury of princes and warriors and their unfair exactions, the chronicle recalls the ancient princes with their husbands who knew how to defend the Russian land and conquer other countries. “Those princes,” she says, “did not collect much property, did not invent new virs and sales from the people; and if the virs were fair, then they took them and gave them to the squad for weapons. And the squad obtained food for itself, fighting other lands, and fought , saying: “Brothers, let us strive for our prince and for the Russian land.” They did not say then: “Prince, two hundred hryvnias are not enough for me”; they did not put gold hoops on their wives; but their wives walked in silver. Russian." Consequently, in the pre-Tatar era, two hundred hryvnias of silver was approximately the usual salary that senior warriors received; and the younger ones, of course, received less.
In the 12th century, part of the younger squad, youths and children, who lived with the prince, in his court, as his bodyguards and servants, judging by the direct instructions of the chronicle, began to be called nobles; this name was subsequently destined to acquire a broad meaning. With the proliferation of Igor’s offspring and the division of lands into appanages, the number of individual squads that were constantly under the prince could not be large; in this era it usually consisted of several hundred people. This number was sufficient to maintain internal order and for minor internecine wars. But in the case of large enterprises and in wars with neighbors, the princes convened their squad, scattered throughout the cities and volosts, and, in addition, recruited an army from the urban and rural population; Moreover, they helped its weapons from their own reserves. The warriors formed the core of this temporary army, mostly on foot; whereas the prince's squad was usually mounted. Given the warlike spirit of the Russian people, with their inclination towards daring and in the absence of class isolation of that time, often commoners, especially those who had been in the war, no longer parted with their weapons and entered the category of vigilantes. The princes willingly took all sorts of daring people into their service; Thus, their squad could always be reinforced by an influx of fresh energetic forces from the people. A commoner who distinguished himself by military exploits could even rise to the rank of boyar; but such cases seem to have been rare; at least in the pre-Tatar era, with the exception of the chronicle legend about Yan Usmovich, who defeated the Pecheneg hero in single combat under Vladimir the Great, we can cite only two Galician boyar families that rose from the common people, namely: the Domazhirichi and the Molibogovichi, who came “from the Smerdya tribe "(Chronicle mention of that under 1240).
The squad, which served as the armed guard of the princely power, naturally became the main body of administration and court. From among their boyars and youths, the princes appointed posadniks, thousanders, tiuns, birichi, etc. In those days, there was no distribution of power across various branches, and princely officials often combined in one person the management of both military and civil affairs, as well as judicial and economic affairs. In addition to the salary from the prince, a certain part of the profits and sales went in their favor, i.e. legal penalties and fees. According to Russian Pravda, when visiting volosts, residents of the vervi, or community, were obliged to deliver to the judges, their assistants and servants required quantity food supplies and food for their horses for the entire time trial. Little by little, it became a custom for officials and judges to generally receive gifts and offerings from residents, both in money and in natural products.
From here, a whole system of so-called feeding subsequently developed. Chronicles and other sources sometimes tell us about popular displeasure against the princely mayors and tiuns, who oppressed the population with arbitrary exactions, sales (judicial penalties) and various extortions; what especially happened under the careless princes and weak in character or with those who indulged their warriors too much. The population suffered mainly from them if the prince came to the table from another region and brought with him an out-of-town squad, to whom he distributed positions of rulers and judges. We see examples of this, firstly, in Kyiv, when the great table was taken over by Vsevolod Olgovich, who came with the Chernigovites, and then Yuri Dolgoruky, surrounded by his Suzdalians; secondly, in the Suzdal land, when the grandchildren of Dolgoruky, two Rostislavichs, came from Chernigov to Rostov and Suzdal with South Russian warriors and allowed them to offend the residents with their extortion. And vice versa, the princes, active, fair and strong in character, tried not to offend the zemstvo to their boyars and servants; they themselves supervised the entire administration; were not lazy to often go to polyudye, i.e. make detours around cities and volosts, and they themselves sorted out litigation and observed the collection of tributes. Examples of such princes are especially Vladimir Monomakh and his grandson Vsevolod the Big Nest.
Maintaining their family and squad or their court required large expenses from the princes and, of course, forced them to gradually find new sources, so that by the end of this period the latter had managed to develop into a rather complex and diverse system. In the initial era, the main sources were military booty and tribute from conquered peoples - income subject to many accidents. With the development of greater sedentism and peaceful relations with neighbors, with the establishment of more state orders in one's own country, incomes were received by more defined and permanent types with their various divisions. In first place remained tribute, which was imposed on volosts based on the number of their population and the wealth of natural products. Then come the taxes and sales, more varied trade duties, especially the duty levied on transported goods. In addition to a large amount of food supplies, furs and other natural products, which the population delivered to the princely treasury in the form of tributes and quitrents, the Russian princes also had their own own farm, more or less extensive - a farm that they ran with their own servants or slaves. They had their own special villages; and near some villages there were princely courts with storerooms and cellars, in which large reserves of iron and copper items, honey and all kinds of goods were accumulated; on the threshing floors there were hundreds of stacks of different grains; Several thousand horses grazed in the meadows, etc. The princes also had their own fishermen, beaver growers, beekeepers and other industrialists in their volosts. And the prince's hunt, which sometimes reached very significant proportions, although it served as a subject of amusement and physical exercise for the princes, at the same time provided them with a large amount of all kinds of animals and game, and therefore meat for consumption, as well as fur and leather. Given the combination of all these sources, it is very natural that those princes who were distinguished by their economic character, thriftiness and thriftiness, sometimes accumulated great wealth, consisting of precious metals, clothing, weapons, utensils and all kinds of goods.
Already in that era we find around the prince court ranks separated from the squad for various kinds service (most of them subsequently received the character of honorary titles). These are: courtier, steward, sword-bearer, printer, housekeeper, stablemaster, hunter, saddlemaker; in addition, a scribe or clerk. There were also breadwinners, or uncles, chosen from the boyars, to whom the young princes were given under the supervision. Home and agriculture The prince, in addition to the housekeepers, was in charge of the elders, stablemasters, etc., who were appointed both from the warriors, that is, free people, and from servants or slaves.
In general, druzhina-princely life Ancient Rus' represented many features of the pagan era, slightly changed under the influence of time, especially under the influence of the Greek Church and living ties with Byzantium. For example, one of the important rituals in princely life is “tonsuring”. Obviously, this ritual comes from ancient times and is in connection with the custom of noble people among Russians and Bulgarians to shave their beards and cut the hair on their heads, with the exception of the forelock, as we see in the example of Svyatoslav Igorevich and the ancient Bulgarian princes. When the boy reached approximately three or four years of age, his hair was cut for the first time and solemnly mounted on a horse, which generally served as an inseparable companion of the warlike Russian princes and warriors. The child's parents accompanied this celebration with a feast and drinking bout, depending on the degree of their wealth and their nobility. In Christian times, the Sarmatian custom of the ancient Russians to completely shave their heads and shave their beards was gradually softened under the influence of Byzantium. Princes and boyars began to grow beards, small at first, and also wear short hair on their heads. But the custom of ceremoniously tonsuring a child and placing him on a horse still remained and was accompanied by a feast. Only this rite was already sanctified by the blessing of the church; The cutting of hair was probably carried out by a clergyman, and among princes, perhaps by the bishop himself. In the same way, the participation of the church sanctified the important rite of enthronement, or “seating on the table,” which, of course, already existed in pagan times. Now it took place in the cathedral church; and then, of course, feasts and treats followed. Particularly generous meals and heavy drinking bouts accompanied the marriages of Russian princes, which took place very early, usually in adolescence. In general, Russian princes and warriors, like true Slavs, loved to live cheerfully. When the princes were not busy with war or hunting, they devoted their day from early morning to government and judicial studies together with the prince's Duma, which consisted of boyars; and after lunch we spent time with the squad watching the steps strong honey or overseas wine, and they were often amused by storytellers, songwriters, guslar players and various kinds of “players” (dancers, buffoons and acrobats). One must assume that the richest princely courts abounded in people skilled in this kind of entertainment. Some musical and acrobatic games, in all likelihood, spread to Rus', especially from Byzantium. (The frescoes on the stairs of the Kiev St. Sophia Cathedral give a visual representation of these various amusements.)
The boyars very naturally tried to imitate the princes in their everyday life. They also had in their courtyard numerous servants or slaves, with whom they also ran a large economy on their lands. They went to war or hunting, accompanied by their own armed servants, or youths, so that they had, as it were, their own squad. Those boyars who held the positions of governors, mayors and mayors surrounded themselves with special pomp and crowds. With the exception of those serving in cities and volosts, the boyars were obliged to appear in the mansion of their prince every day early in the morning to form his council, or duma, and generally help him in business. Among the boyars and warriors, favorites, or “almsmen” are sometimes mentioned, who enjoyed the special trust of the prince, which, of course, aroused envy and displeasure in other Duma members. Another curious circumstance is that the young sons of the boyars, apparently, lived with the prince himself and were part of his youths, or junior squad. It was probably from them that the name “children of the boyars” subsequently spread to this entire junior squad.
Nowadays, the word “druzhina” cannot be classified as a frequently used term. When mentioned, someone may remember school history lessons. Which, in general, is correct, since of all possible values, two refer to past eras. However, before moving on to their consideration, the term itself should be defined.
What does it mean
According to dictionaries, a squad is a detachment or group formed for the purpose of performing a special task. Often such units, especially when it comes to paramilitary forces, have a rigid hierarchical structure.
The term itself comes from the Old Church Slavonic “drouzhina”, so similar words can be found in many related languages, for example, in Bulgarian, Czech, Croatian, Ukrainian, Polish, Slovenian, etc. In any of these languages, druzhina is a word meaning “society” or "squad", which is also derived from the word "friend".
Today this term is used in several meanings. Below we will briefly consider each of them, but for now we will list what types of squads there are:
- princely;
- engineering and construction;
- combat;
- folk;
- voluntary;
- sanitary;
- firefighters;
- pioneer
Princely squad
This is a privileged part of the army in the Old Russian state (IX-XIII centuries). It included well-born servants of the appanage prince, who, on the one hand, raised the authority of his power among the people, and on the other, helped to administer the principality. In addition, the squad was the combat core of the army when repelling an enemy attack.
Her ethnic composition was heterogeneous. According to historical documents, among the warriors there were not only Russians, but also Varangians, Hungarians, Poles, Finns, and Turks. They were bound by a free contract with the prince, which could be broken at any moment.
In the 11th-12th centuries, the squad was divided into senior and junior. The first included representatives of the boyars who held important positions: governors, mayors, thousanders, etc. They constituted the princely council and the most influential part of the people's veche. The junior squad also included free community members and even dependent slaves.
Tsarist Russia
After the appanage principalities left the historical scene, giving way to a centralized state, the word squad did not go out of use. True, its meaning has changed. So, in pre-revolutionary Russia it meant:
- separate military units formed on the basis of the militia;
- engineering and construction teams engaged in military work;
- partnerships and artels;
- voluntary sanitary brigades created for the period of military operations.
During the Russian Revolution of 1905-1907. a new political term appeared - “combat squad”. These were groups of workers formed by the Bolsheviks with the aim of preparing an uprising.
However, one should not think that such organizations were formed exclusively during periods of social upheaval or in conditions of military operations. An example of this is a voluntary squad of 20 thousand people created in Moscow in 1881. Her tasks included ensuring order during the celebrations associated with the coronation of Alexander III.
In 1930, voluntary societies (brigades) were organized in the USSR, which helped the police maintain law and order both in rural areas and in cities. In the summer of 1941, a people's militia, sanitary and fire brigades were formed on their base.
In the post-war years, these brigades continued to help the police maintain law and order and carry out educational work until 1959. From that time on, in addition to the police, the protection of public order in the country was also carried out by the DND - voluntary people's squads that patrolled the streets every day. This social movement, like many others, was abolished in 1991 after the ban on the Communist Party.
In addition to him, in the USSR there were also pioneer squads that united members of the All-Union Children's Organization.
Revival of people's vigilantes
By presidential decree in Russian Federation starting in 2014, citizens of the country could again actively participate in the search for missing people and maintaining public order. According to this document, members of a voluntary people's squad are equal to After registration with local self-government bodies, they can use distinctive symbols and wear a uniform.
People's warriors can be:
- adult citizens of the Russian Federation;
- had no criminal record;
- not suffering from mental disorders;
- know how to provide first aid;
- not suffering from drug addiction or alcoholism.
What are their powers:
- notify the police of offenses;
- assist her in maintaining law and order;
- patrol the streets;
- participate in the search for missing citizens;
- maintain order during mass actions;
- participate in operations that do not threaten their lives, and if there is consent from the police.
For disobedience to people's vigilantes, the decree provides for a fine of 500 to 2.5 thousand rubles. On the other hand, the guards of public order themselves can be fined for exceeding their powers in the amount of 1 to 3 thousand rubles.
Composition and evolution
The prince and the princely squad, along with the city council, personified the most important state institutions Kievan Rus.
As I.Ya. writes Froyanov, the word squad is common Slavic. It is derived from the word “friend”, the original meaning of which is companion, comrade in war.
In Russian historical science, a squad is usually understood as a detachment of warriors (“Svyatopolk, and Volodymyr and Rostislav, having completed the squad, went away”) or the prince’s inner circle (“you love the squad greatly”).
When and how does the squad appear? Eastern Slavs, it's hard to say. One can only speculate about the origin of the squad based on indirect data and analogies. As a rule, when it comes to such questions, one is drawn to early evidence of the squads of the ancient Germans. In the 1st century AD Among the ancient Germans, warriors constituted a special group. She lived separately from her community with the chief. The warriors existed thanks to military campaigns in which booty was captured, as well as thanks to gifts from their fellow tribesmen and neighboring tribes. The leader had the right to distribute the funds received in this way. He was bound to the squad by mutual obligations of personal loyalty. The squad was recruited from noble youths and valiant warriors. Tacitus also mentions some hierarchical division among the warriors.
Apparently, the East Slavic squad also had similar characteristics. However, we can only draw this conclusion by analogy. Moreover, in the sources the word “squad” is clearly not unambiguous. Thus, in the story about the Kiev uprising of 1068, two different squads are mentioned: “Otherwise people speak against the governor of Kosnyachka; I went up the mountain from the evening, and came to the Kosnyachkov courtyard and did not find it, standing at the courtyard of Bryachislavl and deciding: “Let’s go and drop off our squad from the cellar.”<…>Izyaslav sits on the senekh with his squad...” As we see, in addition to the prince’s squad, “their” squad of the rebels of Kiev is also mentioned here. It is difficult to say who it consists of in this case, but it is obvious that in addition to the princely squads, there were others. Nevertheless, in historical literature it is customary to call a princely detachment of warriors a squad.
The selection of the princely squad, according to A.A. Gorsky, contributes to the destruction of the tribal structure that engulfed the Slavic ethnic group in the V-VI centuries. S.V. Yushkov believes that the princely squads as a circle of his closest associates and collaborators have existed since their inception Kyiv State. I agree with both of them, since I consider the armed detachments of tribal leaders of the V-VII centuries to be the prototype of the princely squad of Kievan Rus.
Despite the paucity of sources, we can guess what the size of the squad was and who it consisted of. One of the earliest mentions of the size of the squad of Russian princes is a fragment from the notes of Ibn Fadlan, who says that “together with the king of the Russians in<…>Four hundred men from among the heroes, his associates, are constantly in the castle.” A.A. Gorsky supports the opinion of T. Vasilevsky that the squad consisted of two hundred to four hundred people, with which I.N. agrees. Danilevsky, but M.B. Sverdlov believes that the number of soldiers reached five hundred to eight hundred people.
There is a unity of opinion on the issue of squad composition in historical literature. The main contingent of the squad, according to S.V. Yushkov, can be considered “the ancestral nobility, but anyone whom the prince considered valuable in military affairs could be included in the number of warriors.” From this it is clear that the prince could receive people different nations and tribes, as confirmed by sources. In addition to the Slavs and Varangians, the squad also included Ugrians (Hungarians), Torci, and other tribes. I.D. Belyaev believes, and one cannot but agree with him, taking into account the Varangian origin of the Rurik dynasty, that initially the squad consisted only of Varangians. But already under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, this element loses its primary importance, since, according to I.D. Belyaev, these free and restless warriors could become an obstacle in the exercise of his power, and after the death of Yaroslav, the chronicles do not mention the Varangian squads at all. However, already under Oleg the Varangians perceive themselves as indigenous people(like the Slavs). Such assimilation is depicted before us by Oleg’s treaty with Byzantium in 911, in which his warriors swear by “Perun, their god, and Volos, the cattle god.” I.D. Belyaev also says that Hungarians, Pechenegs, Poles, Polovtsians, etc. now served in the squad.
It is indisputable that the princely squads had a hierarchical structure. As a rule, it is divided into “senior”, “junior” and “middle” - a group of “husbands” that cannot be classified as either the first or the second.
The “senior” squad consisted of those who served the prince’s father (“the father’s squad”). It passes to the younger generations of princes, armed with the same influence and authority in the druzhina and public environment. Most often, this group of warriors includes boyars, less often husbands, S.V. Yushkov believes that “from its ranks come the thousanders, posadniks and other representatives of the princely administration.” The chronicles are replete with stories about princes who were in boyar company under a variety of life situations, social and everyday: “... and after singing the liturgy, the brothers dined on a stingy meal, each with his boyars,” “and the noble prince Vsevolod went against him with his son<…>and all the bolyars, and blessed Metropolitan John with the monks and with the prosvutera. And all the kiyans wept greatly over him,” “Svyatopolk convened the bolyars and kiyans, and told them what Davyd had told him<…>. And deciding the boys and the people...” Old tradition the duma of the prince and his squad was fundamental in the relationship between the prince and the boyars. Whatever the prince was up to, he always had to “reveal” his plan to the boyars who served him, otherwise risking losing the boyars’ support, which threatened him with failure. Princes sometimes neglected to consult with the boyars, but such facts were rare. However, over time, the prince prefers to focus on the “average” squad, not listening to the advice of the boyars, but from the “senior” squad, the commanders of the “warriors” invariably stand out, because they are the most experienced and valiant.
The “middle” layer of the squad consisted of the Gridba, according to S.M. Soloviev and I.E. Zabelin, or princely men (S.V. Yushkov, I.A. Porai-Koshits). It is possible that, unlike the boyars who were involved in government, the men were engaged only in military service. These warriors constituted the main combat contingent of the prince's personal military forces. Gradually, the prince prefers to rely not on his father’s warriors - the boyars, but on his peers. Perhaps this is precisely what is connected with the numerous reproaches of the chroniclers against the princes, that they listen to the advice of the “unique”, neglecting the opinion of their elders: “And [Grand Duke Vsevolod Yaroslavich] began to love the meaning of the wise, creating light with them, and now began to make Prince of Truth, I began to rob this union and sell people, for this I do not lead in my illnesses.” Perhaps this hides the gradual strengthening of the role of the prince, who sought to get rid of the influence of the squad. The layer of the “middle” squad consisted of the prince’s peers. According to I.N. Danilevsky, they grew up and were raised with the prince from the age of 13-14. Together with these warriors, the prince studied military affairs and went on his first campaigns. Hence it is clear why their position was closer to the prince, why he sought support among his peers.
Also, strong ties connected the prince with the “junior” squad, which included youths, children, almsmen, stepsons, who, depending on the individual duties assigned to them, were swordsmen, throwers, virniks, and others. Sources introduce us to the youths earlier than to the rest of the representatives of the “younger” squad - in the 10th century: “therefore the gray-haired villagers drank, and Olga ordered her youth to serve before them,” “and Svyatoslav’s speech, except in vain, was his youth...” . They are with the prince, one might say, relentlessly. The youths are, first of all, servants of the prince. This can be judged by the relationship between the words “youth” and “servant”: “and when he heard the war, he left him. Boris stood with his youths<…>and behold, she attacked like a beast near the tent, and put on spears, and gored Boris, and his servant, falling on him, and gored with him.” The official purpose of the youths is revealed quite easily in written monuments. "Tale temporary years"tells about the youths who served Olga and Svyatoslav. In the Extensive Pravda, the princely youth is placed in a row with the groom and the cook: “even as a princely youth, or as a groom, or as a cook.” Based on the material of the Extensive Pravda, we can conclude that the youth performed the functions of Virnik’s assistant (“And behold, the horses of Virnia were beaten under Yaroslav: Virnik take seven buckets of malt for a week, either weed the ram, or two nogate; and on the middle, kuna cheese, and in Friday same<…>now and then a virnik with a youth..."), a bridge worker ("And this is the lesson of the bridge workers"), according to M.B. Sverdlov, and a swordsman, and an independent agent in collecting vir. The youths are not only household, but also military servants of the prince. Svyatopolk Izyaslavich had 700 youths ready for battle: “He [Svyatopolk Izyaslavich] said: “I have 700 of my own youths.” Data about the youths indicate their belonging to the princely house. But the question of their freedom remains open. Most likely, some of them were slaves in the past, however, I think that among them there were also free ones, because... the youth could occupy the usual position of assistant to a virnik for a free man and, in general, be in the service.
Many researchers combine adolescents and children, which is not entirely correct, because they differed in their functions and position. According to Article 86 of the Dimensional Pravda, “pay forty kunas to an ironman, and five kunas to a swordsman, and half a hryvnia to a child; then this is an iron lesson, who knows what.” It follows that the child supervised the testing of the iron in court, and therefore was the main executor of the sentence in court. According to Article 108 of the Dimensional Pravda, “even if the brothers stretch themselves before the prince on their butts, which children go and divide, then he will take the hryvnia kun.” It turns out that in the event of a judicial division of the inheritance between brothers, the child is entitled to a small payment. “During the uprising in Vladimir in 1178, not only the princely posadniks and tiuns were killed, but also the children’s and swordsmen, “and their houses were plundered,” which means that the children’s had a house like the tiuns and posadniks.” From the above material it is clear that the activities of children are much more limited, hence their unequal position.
From the end of the 12th century. one can trace how the “junior” squad is gradually absorbed by the princely court. The term “nobles” appears in the sources. Over time, the princely squad began to collapse, become attached to the ground, losing its ability to fight, because... Most of the soldiers, in order to preserve traditions, should be exempted from management and service at the princely court.
S.V. Yushkov believes that “already by the beginning of the 11th century. there has been a process of disintegration of the squad relations, which manifested itself in the separation of the most influential squad members from the princely court.” I am also of the opinion that with the split of the squad into “senior” and “junior”, with the constant increase in differences between them, symptoms of the collapse of the squad began to appear.
To summarize, it should be noted once again that within the Old Russian squad there was a hierarchical division into “senior”, “middle” and “junior”. Within each specific social stratum, only its specific functions were inherent. Over time, the role of the squad in political affairs and its influence on the prince changed. The Old Russian squad existed until the 13th century.
Prince and squad
In the written monuments of Ancient Rus', the prince invariably appears against the backdrop of a squad, in the company of his comrades and assistants, who shared both successes and defeats with him.
As A.A. notes Gorsky, the squad “is recruited and formed not according to the tribal principle, but according to the principle of personal loyalty; the squad is outside the community structure; it is separated from it socially (the vigilantes are not members of separate communities) and territorially (due to the isolated residence of the vigilantes).” At the same time, princely-squad relations were a continuation social relations period of military democracy. The Old Russian squad was a kind of military community, led by a prince - first among equals. From the community came relations of equality, which were externally reflected in squad feasts, reminiscent of peasant “brothers”, in the egalitarian order of division of booty (later transformed into the division of tribute) - the main source of existence of the squad.
Having broken away from the community, the squad first copied its rules in its internal structure. The squad should be understood as professional warriors, who were recognized as nominal collective ownership of the lands from which they had the right to collect tribute.
“The Tale of Bygone Years” provides enough information to solve the problems of this paragraph. The prince resolved many issues not on his own, but with his squad. "In the summer of 6452. Igor, having gathered together many forces, the Varangians, the Rus, and the Glades, the Slovenes, and the Krivichi, and the Tivertsy, and the Pechenegs, and the Tales singing from them, went against the Greeks in boats and on horses, although to take revenge on himself.<…>Behold, the king heard the ambassador to Igor, the radiant bolyars, begging and saying: “Do not go, but take the tribute that Oleg received, and add more to that tribute.” The same goes for the Pecheneg ambassador, who sent a lot of pavoloks and a lot of gold. Igor, having reached the Danube, convened a squad, and began to think, and told them the Tsarev’s speech. Igor’s squad decided: “If the king says so, then what do we want more than that, without hesitating to take gold, and silver, and grass? Whenever someone knows; who can overcome, us or them? Who is bright with the sea? Because we are not walking on land, but in the depths of the seas: the way is bad for everyone.” Listen to them Igor...” As we see, the question of whether it is worth continuing the campaign or whether it is better to conclude peace for a long time favorable conditions(if you trust the chronicler), the prince decides not on his own, but with his retinue. It is her opinion that turns out to be decisive. Let us note in passing that the refusal to forcibly seize all the wealth that the Greeks offered Igor was most likely regarded negatively by the chronicler’s contemporaries. Nevertheless, the prince agrees with the squad and goes to sign peace with the Greeks.
However, the prince did not always agree with the opinion of the squad, but, on the contrary, the squad supported the prince’s decisions. “In the summer of 6479... And the ambassador [Svyatoslav] sent word to the Tsarev in Derevstr, for she was the Tsar, crying to her: “I want to have peace and love with you.” Having heard this, the king was glad and sent gifts to him greater than the first. Svyatoslav accepted the gifts, and began to think with his retinue, shouting to his face: “If we do not make peace with the king, the king knows that there are few of us, and when he comes, they will step on the city. But Ruska is a distant land, and the Pechenesi are with us as warriors, and who can help us? But let us make peace with the king, behold, we will pay tribute, and that will be good enough for us. If we feel like we can’t manage the tribute, let’s go to Tsar’s City again from Rus', having collected our forces.” It was nice to speak quickly to the squad, and sent the sculpted men to the princess...”
The question arises why the prince had to rely on his soldiers. The answer can also be found in The Tale of Bygone Years. For example, the chronicler explains Svyatoslav’s refusal to be baptized this way. “In the summer of 6463...Olga was alive with her son Svyatoslav, and her mother was baptized, and not scolding, but swearing [mocked] him.<…>. As if Olga often said: “I, my son, have come to know God and rejoice; Once you know it, you will begin to rejoice.” He didn’t pay attention to this, saying: “How would you like the law of acceptance to be one and the same? And the squad will start laughing at this.” She said to him: “If you are baptized, you will also have everything.” He didn’t listen to his mother...”
Perhaps this was due to the fact that his status in the squad environment was not yet unconditional. Apparently, the attitude of his comrades towards their prince was largely determined by the extent to which his actions corresponded to what was included in the concept of honor, and it was possible to receive honor if the behavior was approved by his “comrades”.
But, as already mentioned, there were cases when the prince acted at his own discretion, and the squad followed him, and this shows that not only the prince was guided in his actions by the squad, but also the squad followed the prince. “In the summer of 6496... By God’s will, Volodymer fell ill with his eyes, and could not see anything, and was in great pain, and could not imagine what to do. And the queen [Byzantine princess Anna, whom Vladimir wanted to marry] sent to him, saying: “If you want to get rid of this illness, then do not want to get rid of this illness.” Hearing Volodymer, he said: “If the truth be, then truly great God will be a Christian.” And he commanded to be baptized. The Bishop of Korsun and the Tsarina’s priest, having announced, baptized Volodimer. As if you lay your hand on her, you will see clearly. Seeing this vain healing, Volodimer glorified God and said: “The first time I brought the true God away.” And when his squad saw him, they were baptized many times.” Perhaps this passage marks a certain turning point in the relationship between the prince and the squad. If before the authority of their leader, now the actions of the leader are a certain model of behavior for the warriors.
The basis of the relationship between the prince and the squad was also the transfer of certain material values to the latter. Moreover, values are not important in themselves. The resulting wealth, apparently, had no economic substance. I think the vigilantes were more concerned about the act of transfer itself than about enrichment as such. “In the summer of 6583... a German came to Svyatoslav; Svyatoslav, magnifying himself, showed them his wealth. They saw the countless multitudes, gold, and silver, and drags, and decided: “It’s worthless, it’s lying dead. This is the essence of the matter. Men are afraid of looking for more than this.” Ezekiy, the king of the Jews, praised Sitsa, to the ambassador of the king of Asuria, and all his property was taken to Babylon: and so after this death, all his property was scattered in various ways.”
It is noteworthy that the complaints of the vigilantes were focused on external signs of wealth. At the same time, unlike Western European chivalry, land grants were never discussed, which indicates the underdevelopment of feudal relations. As is known, feudal relations are based on corporate land ownership and distribution land plots soldiers on the condition of their service to the owner of the land. On the one hand, there was an abundance of land in Rus', on the other hand, there was a constant shortage of developed areas (the need for a constant change of cultivated land due to the fact that land cleared from forests was quickly “ploughed up”). Under such conditions, land grants were largely meaningless. Their borders could not be secured in any way. This is precisely what prevented the development of “normal” feudal relations for a long time. In Rus', feudalism with its characteristic estates, benefices, immunities and regulation of vassal service began to take shape only at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries. and received full development in the 16th century. Until this time, connections conventionally associated with vassal-suzerain relations in Western Europe existed in a more patriarchal form of personal relations associated with the centralized exploitation of corporately owned lands. This late appearance of feudal relations is due to the fact that the emergence of early feudal relations was interrupted by the Mongol invasion.
In Rus', the formation of a corporation of professional warriors was based not on conditional land ownership, but on the personal connections of the prince-leader and his warriors. They were based on a system of donations, one of the forms of which can be considered feasts for the prince and his squad. Everything that the prince gave to the warrior made the latter dependent on the donor. The same applies to princely feasts. Treating the warriors to the warriors by the prince cemented personal connections that had existed since childhood: “Behold, [Vladimir Svyatoslavich] packs with his people: all week long, set up a feast in the courtyard in the gridnitsa and come as a bolyar, and a gridem, and a socialist, and a tenth, and a deliberate husband, with princes and without princes. There was an abundance of meat, of livestock, and of animals; there was an abundance of everything.” Apparently, at such feasts, rituals of accepting new warriors and meetings, “dumas” of the prince with the squad, also took place. This “thought” was almost the prince’s daily occupation, as it appears from the Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh; Moreover, the opinion expressed by the warriors is by no means binding on the prince. He could act in his own way, which was made easier by the fact that disagreements arose in the squad when discussing issues, and the prince could choose one of the squad’s many decisions.
The squad also received monetary support from the hands of the prince or used deductions from the volost feed and various payments received from the population, while carrying out the police, judicial and administrative orders of the prince. Thus, the squad of Kievan Rus lived largely on princely funds, so the ideal prince was considered to be the one who generously gifted his warriors, but if the squad for some reason was dissatisfied with his prince, then he could leave.
Over time, however, the relationship between the prince and the squad began to change, as can be judged from the above story about the feast. The property stratification of the squad led to the formation of a new social group- boyars, which also influenced the relationship between the prince and the squad.
Drawing analogies between the Old Russian squad and the German one, one can identify a number of characteristics characteristic of both. The warrior community is united around the overlord, this group follows the leader, where he is first among equals. The military community models itself on the family model, which can be seen in the names of the groups of the squad and its members. The system of gifts is more of a sacred character than an economic one. But the German squad was cut off from the community; any valiant warrior could become its leader, which cannot be said about the Slavic one.
To summarize, it should be noted that the relationship between the prince and the squad was built on personal connections, secured by a developed system of “gifts” in various forms. At the same time, the prince acted as “first among equals.” He depended on his warriors no less than they depended on him. The prince resolved all state issues (about the structure of the “land”, about war and peace, about adopted laws) not independently, but with his squad, accepting or not accepting their decisions.
Conclusion
To summarize, it should be noted that neither the princely power, nor the squad, nor the veche assembly remained unchanged.
The origins of the political institutions under study lie in the era of military democracy. It is difficult to say which of them formed earlier.
Princely power originates in the era of military democracy from the power of the tribal leader; a squad already formed around him, from which the princely squad subsequently grew. The question of the existence of the veche during this period remains open. The chronicles do not yet speak of public assemblies in tribal principalities, but some researchers believe that at that time the veche already existed.
With the growth of the tribe's population, the clans included in it gradually turn into a number of related tribes, which already form a tribal union (tribal princedom). At the head of each union are leaders (princes), towering above the tribal leaders. The “super union” arises after the creation Old Russian state and the subjugation of a number of East Slavic tribes by Oleg - tribal principalities are united into one large union. Tribal principalities were abolished by Vladimir Svyatoslavich after he placed his sons in largest cities- tribal centers. Each rank of tribes had certain functions. The leader of the tribe was elected only for the duration of the war. The status of the leader of a tribal union is permanent. His responsibilities include foreign policy, interior construction union, organization, command of the troops assembled by it, performance of religious rites. The functions of the prince of the "union of unions" include all the duties of the above-mentioned leaders. The development of the institution of princely power was facilitated by the collapse of the tribal system, the calling of the Varangians, and the creation of the Old Russian state. In the 10th century New princely functions are formed - legislative and judicial. Subsequently, the prince’s functions deepen, except for the religious one, which he lost after accepting Christianity.
As already mentioned, squads began to form around tribal leaders. By the time of the creation of the Old Russian state, the squad grew from a small armed detachment of warriors into a squadron layer, built not on the clan principle, but on the principle of personal loyalty. The squad lived on the gifts of their fellow tribesmen and the prince and on spoils of war. It consisted of 200-400 people and was recruited from noble youths and valiant warriors; anyone could get into it if the prince was interested in him. After the calling of the Varangians, the Varangian element becomes the main contingent. But the Varangians very quickly became glorified, although they gave impetus to the detachment from the community base; another reason was the destruction of the tribal structure. There is no doubt that the princely squad had a hierarchical structure. The “elder” initially had greater influence on the prince. Most often, boyars, less often husbands, are included in this community of warriors. Perhaps from its ranks come the thousands, posadniks and other representatives of the princely administration. Over time, the prince prefers to focus on the “average” squad, which was the main combat contingent of the prince’s personal military forces. It was composed of Gridba, possibly princely men. Also, strong ties connected the prince with the “junior” squad, which included youths, children, almsmen, stepsons, swordsmen, metal workers, etc. From the end of the 12th century. The “younger” warriors are gradually absorbed into the princely court. The term “nobles” appears in the sources. The princely squad began to collapse as soon as it began to “settle” to the ground and lose its mobility.
By veche, most researchers mean a meeting of city people. I am inclined to believe that the veche has always existed, even during the period of military democracy, since its absence would indicate an uncharacteristically high development of other political institutions for this era. It is quite difficult to determine the composition of the participants of the evening. The conduct of the evening is not chaotic, but quite orderly. It takes place in compliance with traditional rules: those who have gathered are seated and await the start of the meeting, which is led by the prince, metropolitan, and thousand. The veche participated in solving a wide range of problems: issues of war and peace, the fate of the princely table and administration, issues related to monetary collections among citizens, management of city finances and land resources. It is not clear whether the veche always dealt with such problems, or whether sources recorded exceptional cases, usually associated with emergency situations.
References
The Tale of Bygone Years. M.; L., 1950. Part 1.: Text and translation / Prepared. Text and translation D.S. Likhachev and B.A. Romanova.
The Tale of Bygone Years. M.; L., 1950. Part 2.: Commentary/Prepared. Text and translation D.S. Likhachev and B.A. Romanova.
Russian truth. M.; L., 1940.
Tacitus Publius Cornelius. Germany/Workshop on the history of the Middle Ages. Voronezh, 1999. Part 1.
Belyaev I.D. Lectures on the history of Russian legislation. M., 1879.
Gorsky A.A. Old Russian squad. M., 1953.
Read in full: http://www.km.ru/referats/E504AF2FB97C4A209A327617BD45F8C9
1) a detachment of warriors who united around the tribal leader during the period of decomposition of the clan system, and then the prince and constituted a privileged layer of society;
2) armed detachments under the prince in Kievan Rus, participating in wars, managing the principality and the prince’s personal household.
Excellent definition
Incomplete definition ↓
TEAM
1) B ancient meaning- community, unification of people. In this sense, members of Old Russian were called D. vervi communities; in the 14th-15th centuries D. were called members of artels of icon painters, etc. 2) A detachment of mounted warriors united around a tribal leader, and then a king, prince; military an organization characteristic of the system of military democracy, for the period of the decomposition of the clan system and the emergence of feudal rule. relationships. D. appeared among the ancient Germans in the 1st century. BC e. as temporary, and from the 1st century. n. e. already as permanent military personnel. associations and formed the core of the Germans. troops. The leader and D were bound by mutual obligations. The D. had to protect the leader, the latter had to support the D. Members of the D., enriched themselves at the expense of the military. robbery, gradually turned into military-aristocratic. the top of the tribe. In D., Engels wrote, “...the germ of the decline of ancient people's freedom was already hidden...” ("The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State", 1963, p. 161). By promoting the rise of the tribal leader, D. thereby contributed to the emergence of queens. authorities. During the German invasion. tribes in the territory Rome. empire (4th-6th centuries) warriors, as a result of conquests and subsequent queens. awards, it means they acquired. land possessions (“settlement of D. on the ground”) and in the process of development of the feud. relations turned into feudal lords. D. was often available not only to the king, but also to private individuals - large lands. owners. As a military D.'s organization (as well as the people's militia) gave way to feudalism. the militia of the lords. In Russian, the term “vigilantes” corresponded to the following terms: levda (lit. - people) in plural. Germans, antrustions - among the Franks, Gesites, then thegns - among the Anglo-Saxons, Gazindas - among the Lombards, sayons - among the Goths, etc.; sometimes in Germany laws used Rome. (Latin) terminology (buccellaria, fideles - faithful, - the origin of friendly relations occurs back in the period of the Roman Empire). In China, terms close to the concept of “combatant” are chen, shi (in their original meaning), among the Mongols they are nukers. Lit.: Neusykhin A.I., The emergence of a dependent peasantry in Western Europe VI-VIII centuries, M., 1956; Korsunsky A.R., On the development of feudal relations in Gothic Spain, in: Wed. century, 1961, c. 19. See also lit. at Art. Germans. In Kievan Rus, D. was headed by a prince. Entry and exit from D. were free for personally free warrior husbands. D. was the closest support of the princes. authorities. T.n. The “senior” D. consisted of a small number of the most notable warriors who were close advisers to the prince. Senior warriors often received from the prince the right to collect tribute in certain areas in their favor and had their own D. The “young” D consisted of “grides”, “youths”, “children” and other warriors who made up the main body. a lot of D. and also involved in various judicial and administrative tasks. instructions. With the development of the feud. land ownership, the vigilantes turned into land owners - boyars and were one of the main. components in the formation of domination. feudal class. The princes' houses existed until the 16th century, when appanage princes were liquidated. Lit.: Sreznevsky I.I., Materials for the dictionary of other Russian. language, vol. 1, M., 1958; Grekov B. D., Kievan Rus, (M.), 1953. A. M. Sakharov. Moscow.
Social structure of society in Rus' VaDEvil: According to Russian Truth: Princes are the leaders of tribes, later - the rulers of the state or state entities within a single state. Simply put, everyone who was from the house of Rurik. The senior prince in Ancient Rus' was considered the Kiev prince, and the rest were appanages. For the 13th century, after the destruction of Kyiv by the Mongols, the ruler of the Vladimir-Suzdal land became the Grand Duke. Boyars are representatives of the upper class of feudal lords in Rus:i, descendants of the tribal nobility, large landowners. They enjoyed immunity and the right to travel to other princes. Druzhinniki are warriors of armed detachments of princes, participating in wars, managing the principality and the prince’s personal household for monetary reward. Men - in the pre-state and early state period - were free people. The general name for personally free people is City people - townspeople. In turn, they were divided into “best” or “weak” (wealthy) and “young” or “black” (poor). By occupation they were called “merchants” and “craftsmen”. Smerdas were free communal peasants who had their own farm and arable land. Purchases are smerdas who have taken a loan (“kupa”) from another landowner with livestock, grain, tools, etc. and must work for the lender until the debt is repaid. They had no right to leave the owner before this. The owner was responsible for the purchase if he committed theft, etc. Ryadovichi are smerds who entered into an agreement (“row”) with the landowner on the conditions of their work for him or the use of his land and tools. Forgiven people are freed (“forgiven”) slaves. They were under the patronage of the church and lived on its land in exchange for services. Serfs are a category of feudal-dependent population, whose legal status is close to slaves. Initially, they did not have their own farm and performed various jobs on the farm of the feudal lords. The sources of formation of this class were: captivity, sale for debts, marriage with a serf or servant. Outcasts are people who have lost their former social status and are unable to run an independent household.
The social structure of Ancient Rus' was complex. The bulk of the rural population, dependent on the prince, were called smerds. They lived both in peasant communities and in estates. Ruined peasants took out a loan from the feudal lords - "kupa" (money, harvest, etc.), hence their name - purchases. The man who lost his social status, became an outcast. In the position of slaves were servants and serfs, replenished from among the captives and ruined fellow tribesmen.
The dependent people were opposed by a free population called people (hence the collection of tribute - “polyudye”). The social elite consisted of princes from the Rurik family, surrounded by a squad that had been divided since the 11th century. into the eldest (boyars) and the younger ("children's", youths, almsmen). “The new druzhina and zemstvo (zemstvo boyars) nobility, which took the place of the former tribal nobility, represented a kind of aristocratic stratum that supplied political leaders.” The free population consisted mainly of residents of cities and villages, community members, who created a significant part of public wealth. They were the social core of the socio-political and military organization in the Old Russian state. This was expressed as follows.
The free community members had their own military organization, which was far superior in combat power to the princely squad. It was a people's militia led by a leader - the thousand (the militia itself was called "thousand"). The supreme authority in the Russian lands of the X-XII centuries. there was a people's assembly of the "elder city" - the veche, which was the highest form of self-government. According to L.I. Semennikova, the ideal of popular rule and collective communal governance dominated in ancient Russian society: “The prince in Kievan Rus was not in the full sense of the word a sovereign, either in the eastern or western version. When arriving in one or another volost, the prince had to conclude a “row” (agreement ) with the people's assembly - "veche". This means that it was also an element of communal power, designed to protect the interests of society, the collective; The composition of the veche was democratic. The ancient Russian nobility did not have the necessary means for its complete subordination. the course of social and political life"
Opinion of L.I. Semennikova’s opinion about the folk character of the veche is shared by many scientists, including I.Ya. Froyanov, A.Yu. Dvornichenko. At the same time, in science there is a view of the veche as a narrow-class government body, which ordinary people could not get into (V.T. Pashuto, V.L. Yanin, etc.). Another point of view boils down to the following: the veche became a relic in Rus' by the 11th century. and was collected in exceptional cases, and as the highest form of power it was until the 15th century. existed only in Novgorod, Pskov and partly in Polotsk.
The veche played a prominent role in the political life of Ancient Rus', therefore the political system of that time can be called veche democracy.
An analysis of the socio-political situation in Kievan Rus leads to the conclusion that the people were an active political and social force, based on the traditions of freedom and social institutions dating back to antiquity, but built on a territorial basis. Through the veche, the people often decided which of the princes to “sit on the table”, discussed issues of war and peace, acted as a mediator in princely conflicts, and resolved financial and land problems. As for the nobility, it has not yet emerged as a separate closed class, has not turned into a social whole opposing the bulk of the population.
Social structure of Ancient Rus' The highest class in Rus' were the princes, and from the 10th century. also members of the clergy, because they owned (obviously since the 11th century) land property (votchina). The squad occupied a privileged position. The druzhina organization had an internal hierarchy: the top of the druzhina layer was the oldest druzhina; its members were called boyars. The lowest stratum was the junior squad. Its representatives were called youths. The lower class consisted of the free rural population, subject to tribute, and free townspeople, who were called people. For the personally dependent population of fiefs, as well as for unfree servants, the terms servants and serfs were used. Smerds constituted a special category of the population. The question of its essence is debatable. In the second half of the 11th century. a category of purchasers appears - people who become dependent on the landowner for debts and are forced to work for the master until the amount of the debt is paid. Their legal status was intermediate between free people and slaves.
Social structure of the society of Kievan Rus The population of the ancient Russian state, according to various estimates, ranged from 5 to 9 million people. At the head of Rus' were the Rurikovichs - the Grand Duke of Kiev and his relatives. The prince enjoyed great power. He led the army, organized the defense of the country and directed all campaigns of conquest. In the former tribal principalities, his brothers and sons ruled on behalf of the great Kyiv prince. Senior squad Former tribal princes and best men during the period of “military democracy” they constituted the senior squad, the top of the squad layer. They were called boyars and constituted a permanent council (“Duma”) of the prince. Junior squad The junior squad are ordinary soldiers (“gridi”, “youths”, “children’s”). From the junior squad, the prince's personal squad was recruited, which was in his service. From the pre-state period to social structure A squad came to Kievan Rus. But during this period it is divided into older and younger. People are personally free residents of Kievan Rus. By occupation, people could be both urban artisans and communal peasants. Craftsmen were a fairly large group of the population of Rus'. Cities as they grow social division labor became centers for the development of crafts. By the 12th century. in the cities of Rus' there were over 60 craft specialties; artisans produced more than 150 types of iron products. The growth of cities and the development of crafts is associated with the activities of such a group of the population as merchants. The Russian-Byzantine treaty of 944 allows us to talk about the existence of an independent merchant profession. Peasants united into a rural community - verv, which consisted of economically independent families. The word "rope" is most often associated with a rope, which may have been used to mark out individual areas. The community owned a certain territory and was responsible for public order on it to the state (for a corpse found on its territory, it had to pay or find and extradite the killer), paid a fine - viru - for its members, owned land, which it periodically distributed among families . Vladimir I (Saint) Svyatoslavovich (died in 1015), Prince of Novgorod (from 969), Grand Duke of Kiev (from 980). The youngest son of Svyatoslav. Came to power in Kyiv after 8 years of internecine war. Conquered the Vyatichi, Radimichi and Yatvingians; fought with the Pechenegs, Volga Bulgaria, Byzantium and Poland. Under him, defensive lines were built along the rivers Desna, Osetr, Trubezh, Sula, etc., re-fortified and built up stone buildings Kyiv. In 988–990 introduced Christianity as the state religion. Under Vladimir I, the Old Russian state entered its heyday, and the international authority of Rus' strengthened. In Russian epics it was called the Red Sun. Canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church. The squad, which previously performed only military functions, from the end of the 10th century. increasingly turned into an apparatus of state power. The warriors carried out various orders of the Grand Duke (in military affairs, in governing the country, in the field of diplomatic relations). At the same time, the prince was forced to take into account the opinion of the squad. The chronicle cites a case when the squad expressed its dissatisfaction with the stinginess of Vladimir, who exhibited during the feast wooden dishes; The prince, considering that the loss of the squad was worth more than silver and gold, satisfied her demand. In the cities, the prince relied on the boyar-posadniks, in the army - on the governor, who were also, as a rule, representatives of prominent boyar families. The main group of the population of Kievan Rus were free community members - people. Semi-independent population of Kievan Rus At the beginning of the 12th century. a group of semi-dependent people appears - purchasing. Most often, these were ruined community members who went into bondage for receiving a loan - “kupa”. While working off the debt, the purchaser could work on his master’s land, but at the same time he maintained his farm. The law protected the purchaser from the owner’s possible desire to turn him into a white-washed (i.e., complete) slave. The purchase was deprived of personal freedom, but he could redeem himself by repaying the debt. But if the purchaser tried to escape, he became a complete slave. “Russian Truth” is a code of ancient Russian law. It included individual norms of the “Russian Law”, the Truth of Yaroslav the Wise (the so-called Most Ancient Truth), the Truth of the Yaroslavichs, the Charter of Vladimir Monomakh, etc. Dedicated to the protection of the life and property of princely warriors and servants; free rural community members and townspeople; regulated the position of dependent people; set out the rules of obligation and inheritance law, etc. Preserved in 3 editions: Brief, Long, Abridged (lists of the 13th–18th centuries). A small group of the semi-dependent population of Rus' were the ryadovichi. Their lives, according to “Russian Truth,” were protected only by a 5-hryvnia fine. Their connection with the drawing up of a contract is likely. Perhaps the ryadovichi are tiuns who entered into an agreement, housekeepers, husbands of slaves, as well as children from marriages of slaves and freemen. Ryadovichi often carried out minor administrative tasks for their masters. Dependent population of Kievan Rus The completely dependent groups of the population include slaves, known as servants and serfs. Probably, servants is an early name, serfs - a later one. Another possible explanation: servants are slaves from prisoners of war, slaves are internal slaves. The slave did not have the right to be a witness in court; the owner was not responsible for his murder. Not only the slave, but also everyone who helped him was punished for escaping. The sources of slavery were captivity, selling oneself into slavery, marrying a slave or marrying a slave, entering the service of a prince (tiun, housekeeper) without an appropriate contract. In Rus' there was patriarchal slavery, when slaves were involved in work in household, but Roman classical slavery did not exist. The bulk of slaves performed menial work. Their lives were valued at five hryvnia. But at the same time, slaves could be managers, overseers, and key keepers. Their life (for example, the prince's tiun) was valued at 80 hryvnia, and he could act as a witness in court. Despite the existence of an unfree population in Kievan Rus, most historians believe that slavery in Rus' was not widespread due to economic unprofitability. In addition, in Rus' there are categories of semi-dependent and completely dependent residents. Smerds were a special group of the population. These are probably unfree princely tributaries. Smerd had no right to leave his property to his heirs. It was handed over to the prince. One more group can be distinguished - outcasts, people who have lost their social status - a slave who has been bought out, a community member expelled from the rope, a bankrupt merchant or artisan, and even a prince who has lost his principality.
