II. Combination of the corvee system of economy with the capitalist system The corvee system of economy was undermined by the abolition of serfdom. All the main foundations of this system were undermined: subsistence farming, the isolation and self-sufficient nature of the landowner’s estate,

Great geographical discoveries of the mid-15th century - mid-17th century V. were associated with the process of primitive capital accumulation in Europe. The development of new trade routes and countries, the robbery of newly discovered lands contributed to the development of this process and marked the beginning of the creation of the colonial system of capitalism and the formation of the world market.

The pioneers of the Great Geographical Discoveries began in the 15th century. countries of the Iberian Peninsula - Spain and Portugal. Having conquered in the 13th century. their territory from the Arabs, the Portuguese in the XIV-XV centuries. continued wars with the Arabs North Africa, during which a significant fleet was created.

The first stage of Portuguese geographical discoveries (1418-1460) is associated with the activities of Prince Enrique the Navigator, a talented organizer of sea expeditions in which not only nobles, but also merchants took part. Back in the 20-30s of the 15th century. The Portuguese discovered the island of Madeira, the Canary Islands and Azores, moved far south along the western coast of Africa. Rounding Cape Bojador, they reached the coast of Guinea (1434) and the Cape Verde Islands, and in 1462, Sierra Leone. In 1471, they explored the coast of Ghana, where they found rich gold deposits. The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa in 1486 by Bartolomeo Dias created a real opportunity to prepare an expedition to India,

Long sea voyages became possible in the second half of the 15th century. as a result of significant advances in science and technology. Until the end of the 16th century. The Portuguese were ahead of other countries not only in the number of discoveries. The knowledge they acquired during their travels gave sailors from many countries new valuable information about sea currents, ebbs and flows, and the direction of winds. Mapping new lands pushed the development of cartography. Portuguese maps were highly accurate and contained data on areas of the world previously unknown to Europeans. In many countries, reports on Portuguese sea expeditions and Portuguese navigation manuals were published and republished. Portuguese cartographers worked in many European countries. At the beginning of the 16th century. The first charts appeared, on which the lines of the tropics and equator and the latitude scale were plotted.

Based on the doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth, the Italian scientist, astronomer and cosmographer Paolo Toscanelli compiled a map of the world, on which the shores of Asia were marked on the west coast Atlantic Ocean: he believed that it was possible to reach India by sailing west from the shores of Europe. The Italian scientist incorrectly imagined the extent of the Earth along the equator, making a mistake of 12 thousand km. Subsequently they said that this was a great mistake that led to great opening.

By the end of the 15th century. navigation instruments have been significantly improved<компас и астролябия), позволявшие более точно, чем раньше, определять положение корабля в открытом море. Поя-лился новый тип судна — каравелла, которая благодаря системе парусов могла идти и по ветру, и против ветра, достигая скорости 22 км в час. Корабль имел небольшой экипаж (!/ю экипажа гребной галеры) и мог взять на борт достаточно продовольствия и пресной воды для дальнего плавания.

At the end of the 15th century. The Spaniards were also looking for new trade routes. In 1492, the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) arrived at the court of the Spanish kings Ferdinand and Isabella. Little is known about the previous period of Columbus’s life. He was born in Genoa into a weaver's family, in his youth he took part in sea voyages, was an experienced pilot and captain, read a lot, knew astronomy and geography well, Columbus proposed to the Spanish monarchs his project, approved by Toscanelli - to reach the shores of India, sailing west through Atlantic. Previously, Columbus had in vain proposed his plan to the Portuguese king, and then to the English and French monarchs, but was refused. By this time, the Portuguese were already close to opening the route to India through Africa, which predetermined the refusal of the Portuguese king Alfonso V. France and England at that time did not have a sufficient fleet to equip the expedition.

In Spain, the situation was more favorable for the implementation of Columbus's plans. After the reconquest of Granada in 1492 and the end of the last war with the Arabs, the economic situation of the Spanish monarchy was very difficult. The treasury was empty, the crown no longer had free land to sell, and revenues from taxes on trade and industry were negligible. A huge number of nobles (hidalgos) were left without a means of subsistence. Brought up by centuries of Reconquista, they despised all economic activity - the only source of income for most of them was war. Without losing their desire to quickly get rich, the Spanish hidalgos were ready to rush into new campaigns of conquest. The crown was interested in sending this restless noble freemen away from Spain, overseas, into unknown lands. In addition, Spanish industry needed markets. Due to its geographical location and long struggle with the Arabs, Spain in the 15th century. found itself cut off from trade along the Mediterranean Sea, which was controlled by Italian cities. Expansion at the end of the 15th century. Turkish conquests made trade with the East even more difficult for Europe. The route to India around Africa was closed to Spain, since advancement in this direction meant a clash with Portugal,

All these circumstances turned out to be decisive for the Spanish court to accept Columbus's project. The idea of ​​overseas expansion was supported by the top of the Catholic Church. It was also approved by scientists from the University of Salamanca, one of the most famous in Europe. An agreement (capitulation) was concluded between the Spanish kings and Columbus, according to which the great navigator was appointed viceroy of the newly discovered lands, received the hereditary rank of admiral, the right to a share of the income from the newly discovered possessions and a share of the profits from trade.

On August 3, 1492, a flotilla of three caravels sailed from the harbor of Paloe (near Seville), heading southwest. Having passed the Canary Islands, Columbus led the squadron in a northwest direction and after a few days of sailing reached the Sargasso Sea, a significant part of which was covered with algae, which created the illusion of proximity to land. The flotilla found itself in the trade wind zone and moved quickly forward. For several days the ships wandered among the seaweed, but the shore was not visible. This gave rise to superstitious fear among the sailors, and a mutiny was brewing on the ships. In early October, after two months of sailing under pressure from the crew, Columbus changed course and moved southwest. On the night of October 12, 1492, one of the sailors saw land, and at dawn the flotilla approached one of the Bahamas islands (the island of Guanahani, called San Salvador by the Spaniards). During this first voyage (1492-1493), Columbus discovered the island of Cuba and explored it north shore.

Mistaking Cuba for one of the islands off the coast of Japan, he tried to continue sailing west and discovered the island of Haiti (Hispaniola), where he found more gold than in other places. Off the coast of Haiti, Columbus lost his largest ship and was forced to leave part of the crew on Hispaniola. A fort was built on the island. Having fortified it with cannons from the lost ship and left the garrison with supplies of food and gunpowder, Columbus began to prepare for his return voyage. Fortress on Hispaniola - Navidad (Christmas) - #t*la the first Spanish settlement in the New World.

Open lands, their nature, appearance and occupations of their inhabitants

cm did not resemble the rich lands of Southeast Asia described by travelers from many countries. The natives had copper-red skin color, straight black hair, they walked naked or wore pieces of cotton cloth on their hips. There were no signs of gold mining on the islands, only some of the inhabitants had gold jewelry. Having captured several natives, Columbus explored the Bahamas in search of gold mines. The Spaniards saw hundreds of unfamiliar plants, fruit trees and flowers. In 1493, Columbus returned to Spain, where he was received with great honor.

Columbus's discoveries worried the Portuguese. In 1494, through the mediation of the Pope, an agreement was concluded in the city of Tor Desillas, according to which Spain was given the right to own lands to the west of the Azores, and Portugal to the east.

Columbus made three more voyages to America: in 1493-1496, 1498-1500 and 1502-1504, during which the Lesser Antilles, the island of Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and others were discovered, and the coast of Central America. Until the end of his days, Columbus believed that he had found the western turbidity to India, hence the name of the lands “Western India”, which was preserved in official documents until the end of the 16th century. However, even on subsequent trips they did not find rich deposits of gold and precious metals there, income from of new lands only slightly exceeded the costs of their development. Many people doubted that these lands were India, and the number of Columbus’s enemies grew. The discontent of the conquistador nobles in the New World was especially great, whom the admiral severely punished for disobedience. In 1500, Columbus was accused of abuse of power and sent to Spain in shackles. However, the appearance of the famous navigator in Spain in chains and under arrest aroused the indignation of many people belonging to various strata of society, including those close to the queen. Columbus was soon rehabilitated and all his titles were returned to him.

During his last voyage, Columbus made great discoveries: he discovered the coast of the mainland south of Cuba and explored the southwestern shores of the Caribbean Sea over 1,500 km. It has been proven that the Atlantic Ocean is separated by land from the "South Sea" and the coast of Asia. Thus, the admiral did not find a passage from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean.

While sailing along the coast of Yucatan, Columbus encountered more advanced tribes; they made colored fabrics, used bronze utensils, bronze axes, and knew metal smelting. At that moment, the admiral did not attach importance to these lands, which, as it turned out later, were part of the Mayan state - a country with a high culture, one of the great American civilizations. On the way back, Columbus's ship was caught in a strong storm; Columbus reached the shores of Spain with great difficulty. The situation there was unfavorable. Two weeks after his return, Queen Isabella, Columbus's patron, died, and he lost all support at court. He received no response to his letters to King Ferdinand. The great navigator tried in vain to restore his rights to receive income from the newly discovered lands. His property in Spain and Hispaniola was described and sold for debts. Columbus died in 1506, forgotten by everyone, in complete poverty. Even the news of his death was published only 27 years later.

Opening of the sea route to India, colonial conquests of the Portuguese. The tragic fate of Columbus is largely explained by the successes of the Portuguese. In 1497, Vasco da Gama's expedition was sent to explore the sea route to India around Africa. Having rounded the Cape of Good Hope, Portuguese sailors entered the Indian Ocean and discovered the mouth of the Zambezi River. Moving north along the coast of Africa, Vasco da Gama reached the Arab trading cities of Mozambique - Mombasa and Malindi. In May 1498, with the help of an Arab pilot, the squadron reached the Indian port of Kali-kut. The entire voyage to India lasted 10 months. Having purchased a large cargo of spices for sale in Europe, the expedition set off on the return journey; it took a whole year, during the journey 2/3 of the crew died.

The success of Vasco da Gama's expedition made a huge impression in Europe. Despite heavy losses, the goal was achieved; enormous opportunities opened up for the Portuguese for the commercial exploitation of India. Soon, thanks to their superiority in weapons and naval technology, they managed to oust Arab merchants from the Indian Ocean and take control of all maritime trade. The Portuguese became incomparably more cruel than the Arabs, exploiters of the population of the coastal regions of India, and then Malacca and Indonesia. The Portuguese demanded that the Indian princes cease all trade relations with the Arabs and expel the Arab population from their territory. They attacked all ships, both Arab and local, robbed them, and brutally exterminated their crews. Albuquerque, who was first the commander of the squadron and then became the Viceroy of India, was particularly ferocious. He believed that the Portuguese should strengthen themselves along the entire coast of the Indian Ocean and close all exits to the ocean to Arab merchants. The Albuquerque squadron destroyed defenseless cities on the southern coast of Arabia, terrifying with its atrocities. The Arabs' attempts to oust the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean failed. In 1509, their fleet at Diu (northern coast of India) was defeated.

In India itself, the Portuguese did not capture vast territories, but sought to capture only strongholds on the coast. They made extensive use of the rivalry of local rajahs. The colonialists entered into alliances with some of them, built fortresses on their territory and stationed their garrisons there. Gradually, the Portuguese took control of all trade relations between individual regions of the Indian Ocean coast. This trade brought huge profits. Moving further east from the coast, they took possession of the transit routes for the trade in spices, which were brought here from the islands of the Sunda and Moluccas archipelagos. In 1511, Malacca was captured by the Portuguese, and in 1521 their trading posts arose on the Moluccas. Trade with India was declared a monopoly of the Portuguese king. Merchants who brought spices to Lisbon received up to 800% profit. The government artificially kept prices high. Every year, only 5-6 ships of spices were allowed to be exported from the vast colonial possessions. If the imported goods turned out to be more than needed to maintain high prices, they were destroyed.

Having seized control of trade with India, the Portuguese persistently sought a western route to this rich country. At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries. As part of the Spanish and Portuguese expeditions, the Florentine navigator and astronomer Amerigo Vespucci traveled to the shores of America. During the second voyage, the Portuguese squadron passed along the coast of Brazil, considering it an island. In 1501, Vespucci took part in an expedition that explored the coast of Brazil and came to the conclusion that Columbus discovered not the coast of India, but a new continent, which was named America in honor of Amerigo. In 1515, the first globe with this name appeared in Germany, and then atlases and maps.

Opening of the western route to India. First trip around the world. Vespucci's hypothesis was finally confirmed as a result of Magellan's trip around the world (1519-1522).

Ferdinand Magellan (Maguillayans) was a descendant of the Portuguese nobility. In his early youth, he took part in sea expeditions while in the service of the Portuguese king. He made several trips to the Moluccas and thought that they lay much closer to the shores of South America. Without precise information about the extent of the newly discovered continent, he considered it possible to reach them by moving west and skirting the newly discovered continent from the south. At this time it was already known that to the west of the Isthmus of Panama lies the “South Sea,” as the Pacific Ocean was called. The Spanish government, which at that time did not receive much income from the newly discovered lands, was interested in Magellan’s project. According to the agreement concluded by the Spanish king with Magellan, he was supposed to sail to the southern tip of the American continent and open the western route to India. They complained to him about the titles of ruler and governor of the new lands and a twentieth part of all income that would go to the treasury.

On September 20, 1519, a squadron of five ships left the Spanish harbor of San Lucar, heading west. A month later, the flotilla reached the southern tip of the American continent and for three weeks moved along the strait, which now bears the name of Magellan. At the end of November 1520, the flotilla entered the Pacific Ocean, the voyage along which lasted over three months. The weather was excellent, the wind was fair, and Magellan gave the ocean such a name, not knowing that at other times it could be stormy and formidable. During the entire journey, as Magellan’s companion Piga-fett wrote in his diary, the squadron encountered only two deserted islands. The ship's crews suffered from hunger and thirst. The sailors ate skin, soaking it in sea water, drank rotten water, and suffered from scurvy. During the voyage, most of the crew died. Only on March 6, 1521 did the sailors reach three small islands from the Mariana group, where they were able to stock up on food and fresh water. Continuing his journey to the west, Magellan reached the Philippine Islands and there he soon died in a skirmish with the natives. The remaining two ships under the command of d'Elcano reached the Moluccas and, having captured a cargo of spices, moved west. The squadron arrived at the Spanish port of San Lucar on September 6, 1522. Of the crew of 253 people, only 18 returned.

New discoveries led to an exacerbation of previous contradictions between Spain and Portugal. For a long time, experts on both sides could not accurately determine the boundaries of Spanish and Portuguese possessions due to the lack of accurate data on the longitude of the newly discovered islands. In 1529, an agreement was reached: Spain renounced its claims to the Moluccas, but retained rights to the Philippine Islands, which received their name in honor of the heir to the Spanish throne, the future King Philip I. However, for a long time no one dared to repeat Magellan’s voyage , and the path across the Pacific Ocean to the shores of Asia was of no practical importance.

Spanish colonization of the Caribbean. Conquest of Mexico and Peru" In 1500-1510. expeditions led by participants in Columbus's voyages explored the northern coast of South America, Florida and reached the Gulf of Mexico. By this time, the Spaniards had captured the Greater Antilles: Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Puerto Rico, the Lesser Antilles (Trinidad, Tabago, Barbados, Guadeloupe, etc.), as well as a number of small islands in the Caribbean. The Greater Antilles became an outpost of Spanish colonization of the Western Hemisphere. The Spanish authorities paid special attention to Cuba, which was called the “key to the New World.” Fortresses and settlements for immigrants from Spain were built on the islands, roads were laid, and plantations of cotton, sugar cane, and spices emerged. The gold deposits found here were insignificant. To cover the costs of maritime expeditions, the Spaniards began the economic development of this area.” The enslavement and merciless exploitation of the indigenous population of the Greater Antilles, as well as epidemics brought from the Old World, led to a catastrophic decline in the population. To replenish labor resources, the conquerors began to bring Indians from small islands and from the coast of the mainland to the Antilles, which led to the devastation of entire regions. At the same time, the Spanish government began to attract immigrants from the northern regions of Spain. The resettlement of peasants was especially encouraged; they were given plots of land, they were exempt from taxes for 20 years, and they were paid bonuses for the production of spices. However, there was not enough labor, and from the middle of the 16th century. African slaves began to be imported to the Antilles.

Since 1510, a new stage in the conquest of America began - the colonization and development of the interior regions of the continent, the formation of a system of colonial exploitation. In historiography, this stage, which lasted until the middle of the 17th century, is called the conquest (conquest). This stage began with the invasion of the conquistadors on the Isthmus of Panama and the construction of the first fortifications on the mainland (1510). In 1513, Vasco Nunez Balboa crossed the isthmus in search of the fantastic “country of gold” - Eldorado. Coming to the Pacific coast, he planted the banner of the Castilian king on the shore. In 1519, the city of Panama was founded - the first on the American continent. Here, detachments of conquistadors began to form, heading into the interior of the mainland.

In 1517-1518 the detachments of Hernando de Cordoba and Juan Grijalva, who landed on the coast of Yucatan in search of slaves, encountered the most ancient of pre-Columbian civilizations - the Mayan state. The shocked conquistadors saw magnificent cities surrounded by fortified walls, rows of pyramids, cacen temples, richly decorated with carvings of gods n cult animals. In the temples and palaces of the nobility, the Spaniards discovered a lot of jewelry, figurines, vessels made of gold and copper, chased gold disks with scenes of battles and scenes of sacrifices. The walls of the temples were decorated with rich ornaments and frescoes, distinguished by the fineness of work and richness of colors.

The Indians, who had never seen horses, were frightened by the very sight of the Spaniards. The rider on the horse seemed to them a huge monster. Firearms inspired particular fear, which they could counter only with bows, arrows and cotton shells.

By the time the Spaniards arrived, the territory of Yucatan was divided between several city-states. Cities were political centers around which agricultural communities united. City rulers collected payments and taxes, were in charge of military affairs and foreign policy, and they also performed the functions of high priests. The Mayan community was the economic, administrative and fiscal unit of society. The cultivated land was divided into plots between families, the remaining land was used jointly. The main labor force was free communal peasants. Within the community, the process of property stratification and class differentiation has already gone far. Priests, officials, and hereditary military leaders stood out. Slave labor was widely used in their economy; debtors, criminals and prisoners of war were enslaved. In addition to collecting taxes, rulers and priests used the community labor service to build palaces, temples, roads, and irrigation systems.

The Maya are the only people of pre-Columbian America that had writing. Their hieroglyphic writing resembles the writing of Ancient Egypt, Sumer and Akkad. Mayan books (codices) were written with paints on long strips of “paper” made from plant fibers and then placed in cases. There were significant libraries at the temples. The Mayans had their own calendar and knew how to predict solar and lunar eclipses.

Not only superior weaponry, but also internal struggles between city-states made it easier for the Spaniards to conquer the Mayan state. From local residents, the Spaniards learned that precious metals were brought from the Aztec country, located north of Yucatan. In 1519, a Spanish detachment led by Hernan Cortes, a poor young hidalgo who arrived in America in search of wealth and glory, set out to conquer these lands. He hoped to conquer new lands with small forces. His detachment consisted of 400 infantry soldiers, 16 horsemen and 200 Indians, had 10 heavy cannons and 3 light guns.

The Aztec state, which Cor-foc set out to conquer, extended from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and the shores of the Pacific Ocean. Numerous tribes lived on its territory, conquered by the Aztecs. The center of the country was the Valley of Mexico. There was a large agricultural population here, and through the labor of many generations a perfect system of artificial irrigation was created.

K1snia, high yields of cotton1 corn, vegetables were grown, the Tseks, like other peoples of America, did not domesticate

Animals, they did not know wheeled traction, metal tools, the formal system of the Aztecs was in many ways reminiscent of the state of Aya. The main economic unit was the neighboring community. There was a system of labor service for the population in favor of the state government for the construction of palaces, temples, etc. Among the Aztecs, craft had not yet been separated from agriculture; in the community they lived as farmers, peasants and artisans.” There was a stratum of representatives of the nobility and people - the caciques, who had large tracts of land and used the labor of slaves. Unlike the Mayans, the Aztec state achieved significant centralization; the hereditary power of the supreme ruler was gradually transferred. However, the lack of internal unity, the internecine struggle for power among representatives of the highest military nobility and the struggle of the tribes conquered by the Aztecs against the conquerors made it easier for the Spaniards to win this unequal struggle. Many conquered tribes switched to their Iurona and participated in the fight against the Aztec rulers. Thus, during the last siege of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan, 1 thousand Spaniards and 100 thousand Indians took part in the battle. Despite this, the siege lasted 225 days. The final conquest of Mexico lasted more than two decades. The last Mayan stronghold was captured by the Spaniards only in 1697, i.e. 173 years after their invasion ml Yucatai. Mexico lived up to the hopes of its conquerors. Rich deposits of gold and silver were found here. Already in the 20s of the 16th century. The development of silver mines was in full swing. The merciless exploitation of Indians in mines and construction, and massive epidemics led to a rapid decline in the population. Over 50 years it has decreased from 4.5 million to 1 million people.

Simultaneously with the conquest of Mexico, the Spanish conquistadors were looking for the fabulous country of Eldorado on the coast of South America. In 1524, the conquest of what is now Colombia began, where the port of Saita Marta was founded. From here the Spanish conquistador X and less Quesada, moving up the Magdalena River, reached the possessions of the Chibcha-Muisha tribes living on the Bogotá plateau. Hoe farming, pottery and weaving production were developed here.

processing of copper, gold and silver. Chibchas were especially famous as skilled jewelers who made jewelry and dishes from gold, silver, copper and emeralds. Gold discs served as their equivalent in trade with other regions. Having conquered the largest Chibcha-Muisca principality, Jimenez Quesada founded the city of Santa Fe de Bogota in 1536.

The second stream of colonization came from the Isthmus of Panama south along the Pacific coast of America. The conquerors were attracted by the fabulously rich country of Peru, or Viru, as the Indians called it. Rich Spanish merchants from the Isthmus of Panama took part in preparing expeditions to Peru. One of the detachments was led by the semi-literate hidalgo from Extremadura Francisco Pizarro. In 1524, together with his fellow countryman Diego Almagro, he set sail south along the west coast of America and reached the Gulf of Guayaquil (modern Ecuador). Fertile, densely populated lands stretched here. The population was engaged in agriculture, raising herds of llamas, which were used as pack animals. The meat and milk of llamas was used for food, and durable and warm fabrics were made from their wool. Returning to Spain in 1531, Pizarro signed a capitulation with the king and received the title and rights of adelantado - leader of a detachment of conquistadors. His two brothers and 250 hidalgos from Extremadura joined the expedition. In 1532, Pizarro landed on the coast, quickly conquered the backward scattered tribes living there and captured an important stronghold - the city of Tumbes. The path opened before him to the conquest of the Inca state - Tahuantisuyu, the most powerful of the states of the New World, which was experiencing a period of greatest growth at the time of the Spanish invasion. Since ancient times, the territory of Peru has been inhabited by the Quechua Indians. In the XIV century. One of the Quechuan tribes, the Incas, was conquered by numerous Indian tribes living in the territory of modern Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. By the beginning of the 16th century. The Inca state included part of the territory of Chile and Argentina. A military nobility was formed from the tribe of conquerors, and the word “Inca” acquired the meaning of a title. The center of the Incan power was the city of Cusco, located high in the mountains. Carrying out their conquests, the Incas sought to assimilate the conquered tribes, resettled them inland, implanted the Quechua language, and introduced a single religion - the cult of the Sun God. The Temple of the Sun in Cusco was a pantheon of regional gods. Like the Mayans and Aztecs, the basic unit of Inca society was the neighboring community. Along with family plots, there were “Inca fields” and “Fire of the Sun,” which were cultivated together, and the harvest from them went to support the rulers and priests. From the communal lands, the fields of the nobility and elders were already allocated, which were their property and passed on by inheritance. The ruler of Tahuantisuyu, the Inca, was considered the supreme owner of all lands.

In 1532, when several dozen Spaniards embarked on a campaign into the interior of Peru, a fierce civil war was going on in the state of Tahuantisuyu. The tribes of the northern Pacific coast, conquered by the Incas, supported the conquerors. Almost without encountering resistance, F. Pizarro reached the important center of the Inca state - the city of Cajamarca, located in the high mountainous region of the Andes. Here the Spaniards captured the ruler of Tahuantisuya Atagualpa and imprisoned him. Although the Indians collected a huge ransom and filled the prisoner of the captive leader with gold and silver jewelry, ingots, and vessels, the Spaniards executed Atagualpa and appointed a new ruler. In 1535, Pizarro made a campaign against Cuzco, which was conquered after a difficult struggle. In the same year, the city of Lima was founded, which became the center of the conquered territory. A direct sea route was established between Lima and Panama. The conquest of Peru lasted more than 40 years. The country was shaken by powerful popular uprisings against the conquerors. A new Indian state arose in inaccessible mountainous areas, conquered by the Spaniards only in 1572.

Simultaneously with Pizarro’s campaign in Peru in 1535-1537. ade-l.stado Diego Almagro began a campaign in Chile, but soon had to rush to Cusco, which was besieged by the rebel Indians. An internecine struggle began in the ranks of the conquistadors, in which F. Pizarro, his brothers Hernando and Gonzalo and Diego d'Almagro died. The conquest of Chile was continued by Pedro Valdivia. The Araucanian tribes living in this country put up stubborn resistance, and the conquest of Chile was finally completed only in At the end of the 17th century, the colonization of La Plata began, the lands along the La Plata and Paraguay rivers were conquered. Detachments of conquistadors, moving from the southeast, entered the territory of Peru. In 1542, two streams of colonization merged here.

If at the first stage of the conquest the conquerors seized precious metals accumulated in previous times, then from 1530 in Mexico and on the territory of Peru and modern Bolivia (Upper Peru) the systematic exploitation of the richest mines began. Rich deposits of precious metals were discovered in the Potosi region. In the middle of the 16th century. The mines of Potosi provided 1/2 of the world's silver production.

Since that time, the nature of colonization has changed. The conquerors abandon the economic development of the conquered lands. Everything necessary for the Spanish settlers began to be brought from Europe in exchange for gold and silver from the New World,

Only nobles were sent to the American colonies, whose goal was to enrich themselves. The noble, feudal nature of colonization predetermined the fatal circumstance for Spain that the gold and silver of America fell mainly into the hands of the nobility, accumulated in the form of treasures or was spent on supporting Catholic conspiracies in Europe, on the military adventures of the Spanish kings. This new direction of colonial exploitation had a decisive influence on the formation of the Spanish colonial system.

Due to the peculiarities of the historical development of the country (see Chapter 4), Spanish feudalism was characterized by some specific features: the supreme power of the king over the conquered lands, the preservation of free peasant communities, and the labor service of the population in favor of the state. Along with the labor of feudally dependent peasants, slave labor of Muslim prisoners played an important role in the economy. At the time of the conquest of America, the socio-economic and administrative system of Spain turned out to be compatible with those forms of social organization that existed in the early class states of the New World.

The Spaniards preserved the Indian community in Mexico, Peru and in a number of other areas where there was a dense agricultural population. They used various forms of community labor service in favor of the state to attract Indians to work in the mines. The Spaniards preserved the internal structure of communities, crop rotations, and the tax system. Harvests from the “fields of the Inca” were now used to pay taxes to the Spanish king, and from the “fields of the Sun” - to church tithes.

The former elders remained at the head of the communities<касики, ку-раки), их семьи освобождались от налогов и повинностей, но должны были обеспечить своевременную уплату налогов и рабочую силу для рудников. На службу испанскому королю привлекалась местная знать, которая слилась с испанскими завоевателями. Потомки многих из них были затем отправлены в Испанию.

All newly conquered lands became the property of the crown. Beginning in 1512, laws were passed prohibiting the enslavement of Indians. Formally, they were considered subjects of the Spanish king, had to pay a special tax "tributo" and serve labor service. From the first years of colonization, a struggle developed between the king and the conquistador nobles for power over the Indians and for ownership of the land. During this struggle in the late 20s of the 16th century. A special form of exploitation of the Indians arose - encomienda. It was first introduced in Mexico by E. Cortes. The encomienda did not give the right to own land. Its owner, the encomendero, received the right to exploit the Indian communities living on the territory of the encomendero.

The zhkomendero was entrusted with the responsibility to promote the Christian population, to monitor the timely payment of "tributo" and the fulfillment of labor duties in mines, construction, and agricultural work. With the creation of the Indian Encomienda, the community was included in the Spanish colonial system, and the lands of the community were declared its inalienable property. The development of forms of colonial exploitation was accompanied by a strong bureaucratic apparatus of the colonial administration. For the Spanish monarchy, this was a means of fighting against the separatist tendencies of the co1*clstadors. I In the first half of the 16th century. In general terms, a system has emerged! administration of the Spanish colonies in America. Two viceroyalties were created: New Spain (Mexico, Central America, Venezuela and the Caribbean islands) and the Viceroyalty of Peru, which covered almost the entire rest of South America, with the exception of Brazil. Viceroys were appointed from the highest Spanish nobility, they went to the colonies for three years, did not have the opportunity to take their family with them, buy land and real estate there, and engage in business. Activities of the Viceroys "<м*тролироаал "Совет Индий", решения которого имели слету »люна.

Colonial trade was brought under the control of the "Seville Chamber of Commerce" (1503); it carried out customs clearance<мотр всех грузов, собирала пошлины, держала под наблюдением миграционные процессы. Все остальные города Испании были лн- * нк"кы права вести торговлю с Америкой минуя Севилью. Главной щраслью хозяйства в испанских колониях была горная промышленность. В связи с этим в обязанность вице-королям вменялось обеспечение королевских рудников рабочей силой, своевременного поступ-нния доходов в казну, в том числе подушной лодэти с индейцев. Нице-короли обладали также полной военной и судебной властью.

The one-sided development of the economy in the Spanish colonies had a disastrous consequence for the fate of the indigenous population and the future of the continent. Until the middle of the 15th century. There was a catastrophic decline in the indigenous population. In many areas, by 1650, it had decreased by 10-15 times compared to the youth of the 16th century, primarily due to the diversion of the working-age male population to the mines for 9-10 months a year. This led to the decline of traditional forms of agriculture and a decrease in the birth rate. An important reason was frequent famines and epidemics that devastated entire regions. Since the middle of the 16th century. The Spaniards began to settle five Indians in new villages closer to the mines, introducing a communal system into them. Residents of these villages, in addition to government work, had to cultivate the land, provide their families with food and pay "tributo". Severe exploitation was the main reason for the extinction of the indigenous population. The influx of immigrants from the metropolis was insignificant. In the middle and second half of the 16th century. Mostly Spanish nobles moved to the colonies; peasant emigration to Peru and Mexico was actually prohibited. Thus, in Potosí in 1572 there were 120 thousand inhabitants, of which only 10 thousand were Spaniards. Gradually, a special group of Spanish immigrants emerged in America, who were born in the colony, lived there permanently, having almost no connections with the metropolis. They did not mix with the local population and formed a special group called Creoles.

Under the conditions of colonization, there was a rapid erosion of Indian ethnic groups and tribal communities, and the displacement of their languages ​​by Spanish. This was greatly facilitated by the resettlement of Indians from different regions into settlements near the mines. Representatives of different tribes spoke different languages, and gradually Spanish became their main language of communication. At the same time, there was an intensive process of mixing Spanish settlers with the Indian population - miscegenation, and the number of mestizos quickly increased. Already by the middle of the 17th century, in many areas a large mulatto population appeared from the marriages of Europeans with black women. This was typical for the Caribbean coast, Cuba, and Haiti, where the plantation economy dominated and where African slaves were constantly imported. Europeans, Indians, mestizos, mulattoes, and blacks existed as closed racial-ethnic groups, very different in their social and legal status. The emerging caste system was consolidated by Spanish legislation. A person's position in society was primarily determined by ethnic and racial characteristics. Only the Creoles had relatively full rights. Mestizos were prohibited from living in communities, owning land, carrying weapons, and engaging in certain types of crafts. At the same time, they were exempt from labor service, from paying "tributo" and were in a better legal position than the Indians. This largely explains the fact that in the cities of Spanish America mestizos and mulattoes made up the majority of the population.

On the Caribbean coast and on the islands, where the indigenous people were exterminated at the very beginning of the conquest of America, the black and mulatto population predominated.

Portuguese colonies. The colonial system that developed in the Portuguese possessions was distinguished by significant originality. In 1500, the Portuguese navigator Pedro Alvares Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil and declared this territory the possession of the Portuguese king. In Brazil, with the exception of certain areas on the coast, there was no settled agricultural population; the few Indian tribes, who were at the stage of the tribal system, were pushed into the interior of the country. The lack of deposits of precious metals and significant human resources determined the uniqueness of the colonization of Brazil. The second important factor was the significant development of trading capital. Organized colonization of Brazil began in 1530, and it took the form of economic development of coastal areas. An attempt was made to impose feudal forms of land tenure. The coast was divided into 13 captains, the owners of which had full power. However, Portugal did not have a significant surplus population, so settlement of the colony proceeded slowly. The absence of peasant migrants and the small number of indigenous people made the development of feudal forms of economy impossible. The areas where the plantation system arose, based on the exploitation of African blacks, developed most successfully. Starting from the second half of the 16th century. The import of African slaves is growing rapidly. In 1583, 25 thousand white settlers and millions of slaves lived throughout the colony. White settlers lived primarily in the coastal zone in fairly closed groups. Here, miscegenation did not take off on a large scale; the influence of Portuguese culture on the local population was very limited. The Portuguese language did not become dominant; a unique language of communication between the Indians and the Portuguese arose - “lengua geral”, which was based on one of the local dialects and the basic grammatical and lexical forms of the Portuguese language. Lengua Geral was spoken by the entire population of Brazil over the next two centuries.

Colonization and the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church played a major role in the colonization of America, which, both in the Spanish and Portuguese possessions, became the most important link in the colonial apparatus, the exploiter of the indigenous population. The discovery and conquest of America was considered by the papacy as a new crusade, the goal of which was to Christianize the indigenous population. In this regard, the Spanish kings received the right to manage the affairs of the church in the colony, manage missionary activities, and found churches and monasteries. The church quickly became the largest land owner. The conquistadors understood well that Christianization was called upon to play a big role in consolidating their dominance over the indigenous population. In the first quarter of the 16th century. Representatives of various monastic orders began to arrive in America: Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, and later the Jesuits, who gained great influence in La Plata and Brazil.

Groups of monks followed the troops of the conquistadors, creating their own villages - missions; the centers of the missions were churches and houses that served as dwellings for the monks. Subsequently, schools for Indian children were created in the missions, and at the same time a small fortified fortress was built to house a Spanish garrison. Thus, the missions were both outposts of Christianization and border points of the Spanish possessions.

In the first decades of the Conquest, Catholic priests, carrying out Christianization, sought to destroy not only local religious beliefs, but also to eradicate the culture of the indigenous population. An example is the Franciscan Bishop Diego de Landa, who ordered the destruction of all the ancient books of the Mayan people, cultural monuments, and the very historical memory of the people. However, Catholic priests soon began to act in other ways. Having carried out Christianization, spreading Spanish culture and the Spanish language, they began to use elements of the local ancient religion and culture of the conquered Indian peoples. Despite the cruelty and destruction of the conquest, the Indian culture did not die; it survived and changed under the influence of Spanish culture. A new culture gradually emerged based on the synthesis of Spanish and Indian elements.

Catholic missionaries were forced to promote this synthesis. They often erected Christian churches on the site of former Indian shrines, and used some images and symbols of the former beliefs of the indigenous population*, including them in Catholic rites and religious symbols. Thus, not far from the city of Mexico, on the site of a destroyed Indian temple, the Church of the Virgin Mary of Guad El Upecai was built, which became a place of pilgrimage for Indians. The Church claimed that a miraculous appearance of the Mother of God took place at this place. Many ikhons, special rituals, were dedicated to this event. On these icons, the Virgin Mary was depicted with the face of an Indian woman - a “dark Madonna,” and in her cult itself echoes of former Indian beliefs were felt.

Geographical discoveries in the Pacific Ocean. In the second half of the 16th - early 17th centuries. Spanish navigators made a number of Pacific expeditions from Peru, during which the Solomon Islands were discovered<1567), Южная Полинезия (1595) и Меланезия <1605), Еще во время путешествия Магеллана возникла идея d существовании ""Южного материка"» частью которого были вновь открытые острова Юго-Восточной Азии. Эти предположения высказывались в географических сочинениях начала XVII в., мифический материк был нанесен на карты под названием "Терра инкогнита Аустралиа*1 <неизвестиая южная земля), В 1605 г. из Перу отправилась испанская экспедиция, в ее составе было три корабля. Во время плавания к побережью Юго-Восточной Азии были открыты острова, один из которых А, Кирос, стоявший во главе эскадры, принял за побережье южного материка. Бросив на произвол судьбы своих спутников, Кирос поспешил вернуться в Перу, а затем отправился в Испанию, чтобы сообщить о своем открытии и закрепить за собой права на управление новыми землями и получение доходов. Капитан одного из двух покинутых Киросом кораблей — португалец Торрес — продолжил плавание и вскоре выяснил, что Кирос ошибся и открыл не новый материк, а группу островов (Новые Гебриды) ♦ К югу от них простиралась неизвестная земля — подлинная Австралия. Плывя далее на запад, Торрес прошел через пролив между берегом Новой Гвинеи и Австралии, впоследствии названный его именем. Дойдя до Филиппинских островов, которые были владением Испании, Торрес сообщил испанскому наместнику о своем открытии, это известие было передано в Мадрид. Однако Испания не имела в это время сил и средств для освоения новых земель. Поэтому испанское правительство в течение целого столетия держало в тайне все сведения об открытии Торреса, опасаясь соперничества других держав.

In the middle of the 17th century. The Dutch began exploring the coast of Australia. In 1642, A. Tasman, sailing from the coast of Indonesia to the east, rounded Australia from the south and passed along the coast of the island called Tasmania.

Only 150 years after Torres’s journey, during the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), when the British, who fought against Spain, captured Manila, documents about Torres’ discovery were discovered in the archives. In 1768, the English navigator D. Cook explored the islands of Oceania and rediscovered the Torres Strait and the eastern coast of Australia; Subsequently, the priority of this discovery was recognized as Torres.

Consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries. Great geographical discoveries of the XV-XVII centuries. had a huge impact on world development. It is known that much earlier Europeans visited the coast of America and traveled to the shores of Africa, but only the discovery of Columbus marked the beginning of constant and varied connections between Europe and America and opened a new stage in world history. A geographical discovery is not only a visit by representatives of any civilized people to a previously unknown part of the earth. The concept of “geographical discovery” includes the establishment of a direct connection between newly discovered lands and centers of culture of the Old World,

The great geographical discoveries significantly expanded Europeans' knowledge of the world and destroyed many prejudices and false ideas about other continents and the peoples inhabiting them.

The expansion of scientific knowledge gave impetus to the rapid development of industry and trade in Europe, the emergence of new forms of the financial system, banking and credit. The main trade routes moved from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean.

The most important consequence of the discovery and colonization of new lands was the “price revolution,” which gave new impetus to the initial accumulation of capital in Europe, accelerated the formation of the capitalist structure in the economy,

However, the consequences of colonization and the conquest of new lands were ambiguous for the peoples of the metropolises and colonies. The result of colonization was not only the development of new lands, it was accompanied by the monstrous exploitation of conquered peoples, doomed to slavery and extinction. During the conquest, many centers of ancient civilizations were destroyed, the natural course of the historical development of entire continents was disrupted, the peoples of the colonized countries were forcibly drawn into the emerging capitalist market and, through their labor, accelerated the process of formation and development of capitalism in Europe.

Colonial system

Colonial system

a worldwide system of political-economic governance of politically independent and sovereign states ( metropolises) dependent countries and territories ( colonies). For the colonial system, a territorial gap between metropolises and colonies (location on different continents, significant distance) is common. The colonial system developed during the transition of capitalism to the imperialist stage (the last third of the 19th - early 20th century) and the development of monopoly capitalism. Basic The purpose of creation is to provide access to places where natural resources are concentrated and to form sales markets. From the beginning 20th century There was a crisis in the colonial system, and after World War II its gradual collapse occurred. The largest colonial systems were owned by Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, the USA, and Japan.
The British colonial empire was the most extensive and powerful of all the possessions of the European metropolises. In 1900, Great Britain's possessions occupied an area of ​​33 million km² (almost ¼ of the planet's landmass) and accumulated almost a quarter of the world's population. (368 million people). The features of the British colonial empire were its scale, dispersion across different regions of the Earth, flexible administration. governance (the British were not afraid to introduce elements of self-government in dependent countries, and it was in this colonial empire that protectorates were widely developed). The British Empire was an outstanding political entity not only in its quantitative but also in its qualitative characteristics. Under the control of the British crown there were countries rich in resources, such as Canada, Australia, South. Africa, India. Often British possessions were located in strategically important points on the planet, controlling straits and major sea routes.
The second most powerful colonial system in the beginning. 20th century France had. It covered 11 million km², in this area. 50 million people lived. Thus, being only 3 times smaller in area than the possessions of the British crown, in terms of population the colonial empire of France was inferior to the British by more than 7 times. The colonies of France were grouped more compactly: main. part of them was in the north-west. and center. districts of Africa.
The colonial empires of the Iberian countries - Spain and Portugal - experienced their heyday in the 16th–18th centuries, when all of Latin America was divided between these two far from the largest states. Such modern countries as Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela, Chile, Cuba, the Philippines, etc. were once subordinate to the Spanish crown. 20th century From the colossal colonial empire, only small fragments have survived - the African colonies of Spain: Northern Morocco, Rio de Oro (now Western Sahara), Spanish Guinea (now Equatorial Guinea). Portugal, having lost its largest colony Brazil in 1822, still 30 years ago owned Angola, Mozambique, Portuguese Guinea (now Guinea-Bissau), the Cape Verde Islands (now Cape Verde), Sao Tome and Principe, East Timor .
Germany with con. 19th century managed a number of territories. in Africa (German East Africa, Togo, Cameroon, South West Africa, now Namibia) and the Pacific Ocean (New Guinea, Nauru, Samoa, Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands), but as a result of the 1st World War all of them were captured by Germany's opponents - mainly. Great Britain and France, as well as Belgium, Japan, Portugal.
The largest colony of the Netherlands was the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) with a population of millions; Dutch Guiana (now Suriname) was significantly smaller. A number of Antilles islands in the Caribbean Sea (Aruba, Curacao, Bonaire, etc.) are still in the possession of the Netherlands.
Belgium until the 60s. 20th century ruled the Belgian Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo), Rwanda and Burundi.
Italy ruled some colonies in Africa (Libya, Eritrea, Somalia). However, they were all lost after Italy's defeat in World War 2.
US Colonial Empire in the 40s. 20th century included the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Eastern Samoa, Guam, and the Virgin Islands. All of these possessions, with the exception of the Philippines, which gained independence in 1946, are still governed by Washington.

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. A. P. Gorkina. 2006 .

See what the “colonial system” is in other dictionaries:

- (lat.). A collection of laws linking colonies with metropolises and prohibiting the former from bartering with other countries. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. COLONIAL SYSTEM lat. A collection of measures binding the colonies... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

colonial system- A system of interstate relations and the corresponding international division of labor, in which individual countries are under the authority of another state (the metropolis) and are deprived of political and economic independence. Syn.:… … Dictionary of Geography

See Colonization... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Ephron

The worldwide system of national colonial oppression by the imperialist powers of the gigantic majority of the world's population; an integral part of all relations of monopoly capitalism. Formed during the transition of capitalism to...

Colonial system of the Dutch East India Company- Two points determine the activities of the Dutch company in relation to its colonial possessions in Indonesia: firstly, the forcible consolidation and conservation of pre-capitalist production relations of slave, feudal and, in... ...

English colonial system in the 17th century.- Unlike the Dutch, the British during this period did not have sufficient armed force and therefore used mainly means of economic penetration into India. In the 17th century English company, supplanted by a stronger... ... World History. Encyclopedia

Port. Brasil Colônia Colony of Portugal ← ... Wikipedia

Dating from the beginning of the Portuguese period in Ceylon, in 1505, to the end of Sri Lanka's independence in 1948. Contents 1 Notes... Wikipedia

Possessions of European powers in North America in the middle of the 18th century. British (pink), French (blue), Spanish (orange), territories ceded by France to Great Britain in 1713 are shown in purple... Wikipedia

Colonies under capitalism are countries and territories under the rule of a foreign state (metropolis), deprived of political and economic independence, governed on the basis of a special regime. Metropolis countries... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Books

• General history. History of modern times. XIX - early XX centuries. 8th grade. Textbook. Federal State Educational Standard, Nikita Vadimovich Zagladin. The textbook by Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor N.V. Zagladin examines the second period of modern history. It is dedicated to the time when the foundations of bourgeois civilization were laid...

Colonies in the modern sense appeared in the era of the Great Geographers. Discoveries, as a result of which the colonial system begins to form. And this stage in the development of colonialism is associated with the formation of capitalist relations, therefore the concepts of “colonialism” and “capitalism” are inextricably linked, with capitalism becoming the dominant socio-economic system, and colonies accelerating this process.

Stage 1 of the formation of colonialism is colonialism of the era of primitive accumulation of capital (PCA) and manufacturing capitalism. Here the main processes were colonial robbery and colonial trade, which were the main sources of the PNC.

At this stage, as a result of the VGO, vast colonial possessions began to form, primarily Spain and Portugal, between which in 1494 an Agreement was concluded on the division of the world along the 30-degree meridian in the Atlantic Ocean, along which all lands to the West from this line - there were colonies of Spain, and to the East - all the lands of Portugal. This was the beginning of the formation of the colonial system.

The first period of colonialism also affected the manufacturing period. Subsequently, in the 60s of the 16th century, Dutch merchants and bourgeois began to overtake Spain and Portugal in terms of wealth accumulation. Holland ousts the Portuguese from Ceylon and creates its own strongholds in Southern Malaysia and Indonesia.

Almost simultaneously with the Portuguese, England began its expansion in West Africa (in the countries of Gambia, Ghana), and from the beginning of the 17th century - in India.

Stage 2 of colonialism coincides with the era of industrial capitalism (i.e. stage 2 of the development of capitalism). The new stage in the development of capitalism introduced new methods of exploitation of the colonies. Thus, further colonial conquests required the unification of large merchants and industrialists of the metropolises.

At this stage of development of the colonial system, the industrial revolution occurs (this is the transition from manufactories to factories and factories), which begins in the last third of the 18th century. and ends in developed European countries around the middle of the 19th century. At this stage, the period of exchange of goods begins, with the help of which the colonial countries are drawn into world commodity circulation. Thus, non-economic methods of exploitation (i.e. violence) are replaced by other economic methods (this is the exchange of goods between colonies and metropolises), as a result of which the metropolises turn the colonies into their agricultural and raw materials appendages for the needs of their industry.

Stage 3 is the stage of monopoly capitalism, corresponding to the last third of the 19th century. and before the First World War (until 1914). During this period, the forms of exploitation of the colonies change, they are drawn into the world capitalist market, and through it into the production of goods. And by the beginning of the First World War, the colonial system was completely formed, i.e. At this stage, the territorial division of the world was completed, when the colonial possessions of 3 European powers were formed: England, Germany, France.

Collapse of the colonial system

Stage 1 of the collapse of the colonial system dates back to the end of the 18th century. - the first quarter of the 19th century, when, as a result of wars for independence from Spanish and Portuguese rule, countries gained freedom: in North America - the USA (former English colony) and many countries in Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela, Honduras, Guatemala, Mexico, Colombia).

Stage 2 of the collapse is associated with the crisis of the colonial system that began at the beginning of the 20th century. During the period of imperialism, the preconditions for the collapse of the colonial system are created, these are:

1) the creation of entrepreneurship in the colonies created the possibility of further development only with national independence;

2) the revolution in Russia in 1905-07, which predetermined the trend of the national liberation movement in the colonies;

3) the crisis of Western civilization associated with the First World War and the subsequent profound socio-political changes in the world that influenced the anti-colonial struggle (i.e. the collapse of the colonial system).